HX00024414 


Columbia  (BnitJer^^ttp  t.i 

mtl)f€itpijflfttlork 

College  of  ^tpgictansi  anb  g)urseon£( 
ILibvavv 


GIFT  OF 

Frederick  S.  Lee 


^^^«lv^ 


.^^ 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arcliive 

in  2010  witli  funding  from 
Columbia  University  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/physiologicalasp01bill 


©be  liquor  problem. 

THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM    IN    ITS    LEGISLATIVE  AS- 
PECTS.    By  Frederic  H.  W.nes  and  John  Koren. 
An  Investigation  made  under  the  Direction  of  Charles 
W.  Eliot,  Seth  Low,  and  James  C.  Carter,  Sub- 
Committee  of  the  Committee  of  Fifty  to  Invesfgate  the 
Liquor  Problem.    With  Maps,     izmo,  $1.25- 
ECONOMIC  ASPECTS  OF  THE   LIQUOR  PROBLEM 
By  John  Koren.      An   Investigation  made  ""^er  the 
Direction  of  Professors  W.  O.  Atwater  Henry  W.  Far- 
nam    J.    F.   Jones,  Doctors   Z.    R.    Brockway.   John 
Sam  Brooks,  E.  R.  L.  Gould,  and  Hon.  Carroll  D. 
Wright,  a  Sub-Committee  of  the  Comtn,   ee  of  Fifty. 
w"h  an  Introduction  by  Prof.   Henrv  W.  Farnam. 
i2mo,  $1.50. 
SUBSTITUTES    FOR  THE    SALOON.      By  Raymond 
CalI  Is     An  Investigation  made  for  the  Committee 
of  F^tty  under   the  direction  of  Elgin   R    S.   Gould 
Francis  G.    Peabody,  and  William   M.    Sloane     Sul^ 
Committee.     ,2mo,  tuio.  n.t.    (Postage  .3  cents.) 

THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE  LIQUOR 
PROBLEM.  Edited  by  John  S.  Billings,  M.  D.  An 
Investigation  made  for  the  Committee  of  Fifty  under 
the  direction  of  John  S.  Billings,  W.  O.  Atwater,  H ■  P. 
Bowditch,  R.  H.  Chittenden,  and  W.  H.  Welch,  Sub- 
Committee.    .  vols.  8vo,  ?4.SO,  «<.    (Postage  extra.) 

HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  AND  COMPANY, 
BosTOM  AND  New  York. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECTS 

OF 

THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM 


INVESTIGATIONS  MADE  BY  AND 
UNDER    THE    DIRECTION     OF 


VV.  O.  ATWATER,  JOHN  S.  BILLINGS, 

H.  P.  BOWDITCH,  R.  H.  CHITTENDEN, 

AND  W.  H.  WELCH 

SUB-COMMITTEE  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  FIFTY  TO 
INVESTIGATE   THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM 

VOLUME     I 


BOSTON    AND    NEW   YORK 

HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  AND  COMPANY 

^hi  tii'act0iiK  prcil^,  Cambri&se 

1903 


COPYRIGHT,  1903,   DY  JOHN    S.    BILLINGS 
ALL    RIGHTS   RESERVED 


Published,  June,  igoj 


^■1 


PRESENT  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 
OF  FIFTY. 

Mat,  1903. 


President. 
Hon.  Seth  Low,  LL.  D.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Secretary. 
Prof.  Francis  G.  Peabodt,  D.  D.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Treasurer, 
William  E.  Dodge,  Esq.,  99  John  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Executive  Board. 
The  above-named  officees  and  — 

Dr.  J.  S.  Billings,  Astor  Library,  Lafayette  Place,  New  York,  N.Y. 

President   Chakles  W.  Eliot,  LL.  D.,   Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 

Col.  Jacob  L.  Greene,  Hartford,  Conn. 

Hon.  Carroll  D.  Wright,  A.  M.,  LL.  D.,  Commissioner  of  Labor, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Membei's. 

Prof.  Fells  Abler,  123  East  60th  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Bishop  Edw.  G.  Andrews,  D.  D.,  Methodist  Building,  150  Fifth  Ave., 
New  York,  N.  Y. 

Prof.  W.  O.  Atwateb,  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn. 

Dr.  J.  S.  Billings,  Astor  Library,  Lafayette  Place,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Charles  J.  Bonaparte,  Esq.,  216  St.  Paul  St.,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Prof.  H.  P.  Bowditch,  Harvard  Medical  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Rev.  Prof.  Charles  A.  Briggs,  D.D.,  700  Park  Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y. 

Z.  R.  Brockway,  Esq.,  Superintendent  State  Reformatory,  Elmira, 
N.  Y. 

John  Graham  Brooks,  Esq.,  Francis  Ave.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Hon.  James  C.  Carter,  54  Wall  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Prof.  R.  H.  Chittexden,  Sheifield  Scientific  School,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Rev.  Father  Thos.  Conaty,  D.  D.,  Catholic  University,  Washington, 
D.C. 

JohnH.  Converse,  Esq.,  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Wm.  Bayard,  Cutting,  Esq.,  34  Nassau  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Rev.  S.  W.  Dike,  LL.  D.,  Auburndale,  Mass. 

William  E.  Dodge,  Esq.,  99  John  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


iv        ORGANIZATION   OF  COMMITTEE   OF   FIFTY. 

Rev.  Father  A.  P.  Doyle,  Paulist  Fathers,  455  West  59th  St.,  New 

York,  N.  Y. 
President  Charles  W.  Eliot,  LL.D.,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 

Mass. 
Rev.  Father  Walter  Elliot,  Paulist  Fathers,  455  West  59th  St., 

New  York,  N.  Y. 
Prof.  Richard  T.  Ely,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 
Prof.  Henry  W.  Farnam,  43  Hillhouse  Ave.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 
Rt.  Rev.  T.  F.  Gailor,  D.  D.,  University  of  the  South,  Sewanee,  Tenn. 
Daniel  C.  Gilman,  LL.  D.,  C14  Park  Ave.,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Rev.  Washington  Gladden,  D.  D.,  Columbus,  Ohio. 
Richard  W.  Gilder,  Esq.,  Union  Square,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Dr.  E.  R.  L.  Gould,  281  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Col.  Jacob  L.  Greene,  Hartford,  Conn. 
Dr.  Edward  M.  Hartwell,  5  Brimmer  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Rev.  W.  R.  Huntington,  D.  D.,  Grace  Clmrch,  237  Broadway,  New 

Y'ork,  N.  Y. 
Prof.  J.  F.  Jones,  Marietta,  Ohio. 
Hon.  Seth  Low,  LL.  D.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
President  James  MacAlister,  LL.  D.,  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia, 

Pa. 
Rt.  Rev.  Alexander  Mackay-Smith,  D.  D.,  Bishop  Co-adjutor  of 

Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Prof.  J.  J.  McCook,  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn. 
Rev.  T.  T.  MuKGER,  D.  D.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 
Robert  C.  Ogden,  Esq.,  Broadway  and  lOtli  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Rev.  Prof.  F.  G.  Peabody,  D.  D.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
Rt.  Rev.  H.  C.  Potter,  D.  D.,  29  Lafayette  Place,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Rev.  W.  I.  Rainsfobd,  D.  D.,  290  East  16th  St.,  New  Y'ork,  N.  Y. 
Jacob  H.  Schiff,  Esq.,  27  Pine  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Rev.  Prof.  C.  W.  Shields,  D.  D.,  Princeton,  N.  J. 
Prof.  W.  M.  Sloane,  Columbia  University,  New  Y''ork,  N.  Y. 
Dr.  Wm.  H.  Welch,  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Frederic  H.  Wines,  Esq.,  Springfield,  111. 
Dr.  P.  M.  Wise,  N.  Y.  State  Commission  in  Lunacy,  1  Madison  Ave., 

New  Y'ork,  N.  Y. 
Hon.  Carroll  D.  Wright,  A.  M.,  LL.  D.,  Commissioner  of  Labor, 

Washington,  D.  C. 


NOTE. 

The  publication  of  the  series  of  reports  on  various  aspects  of 
the  Liquor  Problem  of  which  these  volumes  form  the  fourth 
was  begun  in  1897  with  that  on  "  The  Liquor  Problem  in  its 
Legislative  Aspects,"  prepared  under  the  direction  of  Pres. 
Charles  W.  Eliot,  Pres.  Seth  Low,  and  Hon.  James  C.  Carter, 
a  sub-committee  of  the  Committee  of  Fifty.  Then  followed  in 
1899,  "  Economic  Aspects  of  the  Liquor  Problem,"  under  the 
direction  of  Henry  W.  Farnam,  Secretary  of  the  Economic  Sub- 
Committee,  and  in  1901,  "  Substitutes  for  the  Saloon,"  under  the 
direction  of  the  Ethical  Sub-Committee,  consisting  of  Prof.  Fran- 
cis G.  Peabody,  Dr.  Elgin  R.  L.  Gould,  and  Prof.  William  M. 
Sloane.  Like  its  predecessors,  this  report  is  preliminary  in  its 
nature,  and  is  published  in  accordance  with  a  vote  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Fifty  passed  January  10,  1896,  by  which  "  reports  by 
its  sub-committees  to  the  whole  body  may  be  published  by  author- 
ity of  the  Executive  Committee  as  contributions  to  the  general  in- 
quiry, but  to  all  such  publications  is  to  be  prefixed  a  statement 
that  reports  of  sub-committees  are  to  be  regarded  as  prelimi- 
nary in  their  nature,  and  only  contributory  of  facts  upon  which 
the  general  discussion  may  in  the  future  be  undertaken  by  the 
committee  as  a  whole." 


CONTENTS   OF  VOLUME   I. 


Report  of  the  Sub-Committee  on  the  Physiological  and 
Pathological  Aspects  of  the  Drink  Problem,  presented  to 

THE   CoMiOTTEE   OF   FlFTY ix 

Report  on  the  Present  Instruction  on  the  Physiological 
Action  of  Alcohol.     By  Dr.  H.  P.  Bowditch  and  Dr.  C.  F.  Hodge        1 

The  Influence  of  Alcohol  and  Alcoholic  Beverages  on  Di- 
gestion AND  Secretion.    By  Prof.  R.  H.  Chittenden 137 

Data  relating  to  the  Use  of  Alcoholic  Drinks  among  Brain 
Workers  in  the  United  States.     By  J.  S.  Billings,  M.  D.    .     .    307 

Relations  of  Drink  Habits  to  Insanity.    By  J.  S.  Billings,  M.  D.    339 

The  Influence  of  Alcohol  on  Growth  and  Development.  By 
C.  F.  Hodge,  Ph.  D 357 

The  Influence  of  Acute  Alcoholism  on  the  Normal  Vital 
Resistance  of  Rabbits  to  Infection.    By  A.  C.  Abbott,  M.  D.    377 


REPORT  OF  THE  SUB-COMMITTEE  ON  THE 

PHYSIOLOGICAL   AND  PATHOLOGICAL  AS- 
PECTS OF  THE  DRINK  PROBLEM, 

PRESENTED   TO   THE 

COMMITTEE   OF   FIFTY. 


REPORT. 

At  the  meeting  for  the  organization  of  the  Committee  of 
Fifty,  held  in  April,  1893,  the  following  named  gentlemen  were 
appointed  a  Committee  on  the  Physiological  and  Pathological 
Aspects  of  the  Drink  Problem,  namely.  Dr.  J.  S.  Billings,  U.  S. 
Army,  Director  of  the  Medical  Museum  and  Library,  Washing- 
ton ;  General  Francis  A.  Walker,  President  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology  ;  and  Professor  R.  H.  Chittenden, 
Director  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  University. 
This  committee  was  requested  to  report  to  the  General  Com- 
mittee as  to  what  investigations  should  be  made  into  the  effects 
of  alcoholic  drinks  upon  the  human  body,  in  order  to  settle,  as 
far  as  possible,  the  questions  as  to  the  nature  and  amount  of 
such  effects,  and  to  lead  to  a  sound  judgment  as  to  the  merits 
of  the  widely  divergent  opinions  with  regard  to  the  effects  of 
the  moderate  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  which  are  at  i^resent  found 
among  writers  and  teachers  on  this  subject. 

In  the  following  month.  May,  1893,  a  report  was  presented 
to  the  committee,  stating  that  investigations  are  needed  upon 
the  following  subjects  :  — 

"  I.  The  effects  of  each  usual,  or,  as  it  might  be  termed,  nor- 
mal constituent  of  various  kinds  of  alcoholic  drinks,  including 
more  especially  malt  liquors,  the  wines  in  ordinary  use,  whis- 
keys, brandy,  rum,  gin,  and  liquors  or  cordials.  The  constitu- 
ents referred  to  are  ordinary  or  ethyl  alcohol,  various  higher 
alcohols,  such  as  amyl,  propyl,  butyl,  etc.,  alcohol  and  their 
derivative  ethers,  extractive,  bitter,  aromatic,  and  coloring  mat- 
ters, volatile  oils,  tannin,  salicylic  acid,  and  other  preservar 
tives,  etc. 

"  II.  The  effects  of  certain  unusual  and  abnormal  substances 
which  are  at  times  found  in  alcoholic  drinks,  and  which  may  be 
either  purposely  added  or  be  accidental  contaminations. 

"  III.  The  effect  of  the  various  combinations  of  these  normal 
and  abnormal  constituents  which  form  the  alcoholic  drinks  of 
commerce. 


xii  REPORT. 

"  IV.  The  effects  to  be  observed  may  be  divided  into  imme- 
diate, secondary,  and  remote.  The  immediate  and  secondary 
effects,  such  as  those  on  body  temperature,  digestion,  absorp- 
tion, secretion,  the  vascular  and  nervous  systems,  and  especially 
on  metabolism  or  nutrition  in  general,  are  to  be  ascertained  by 
experiments  on  animals  and  on  man.  By  secondary  effects  are 
meant  those  which  follow  within  a  day  or  two.  This  investiga- 
tion would  chiefly  be  a  matter  for  skilled  experimental  physiolo- 
gists to  imdertake. 

"  V.  The  remote  effects  are  those  due  to  the  action  for  a  con- 
siderable period  of  time  of  the  substances  in  question,  being 
manifested  by  changes  in  tissues,  organs,  and  functions,  together 
with  the  resultant  influence  on  nutrition  produced  by  a  more  or 
less  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  of  various  kinds.  This 
branch  of  the  inquiry  pertains  more  especially  to  pathology,  and 
requires  a  careful  collection  and  comparison  of  records  by  com- 
petent observers.  Experiment  on  this  part  of  the  question  has 
but  a  limited  field  of  usefulness,  although  the  results  bearing 
on  nutrition  may  be  of  direct  value. 

"  VI.  It  is  believed  in  a  general  way  that  the  results  of  the 
habitual  use  of  the  different  kinds  of  alcoholic  drinks  differ  in 
different  individuals,  and  also  according  to  the  form  and  amount 
of  drink  used.  Thus  physicians  commonly  believe  that  the 
habitual  excessive  use  of  malt  liquors  tends  to  produce  fatty 
degenerations  of  various  organs,  more  especially  of  the  liver  and 
kidneys ;  that  the  habitual  use  of  wine,  more  especially  of  bur- 
gundy, and  the  finer  clarets  and  port,  tends  to  produce  gout ; 
that  the  excessive  use  of  distilled  liquors  tends  to  produce  exces- 
sive development  of  the  inter-cellular  tissue  in  jthe  liver  and 
kidneys,  resulting  in  what  is  called  cirrhosis ;  and  that  the  use 
of  the  cheaper  kinds  of  spirits,  and  especially  of  those  contain- 
ing the  higher  kinds  of  alcohols  in  the  form  of  fusel  oil,  is 
especially  likely  to  produce  delirium  tremens.  At  present, 
however,  such  statements  as  these  are  usually  matters  of  indi- 
vidual opinion  and  do  not  rest  uj^on  any  scientific  statistical 
basis.  One  of  the  lines  of  inquiry  would  be  to  obtain  positive 
data  on  these  points,  to  compare  the  results  observed  in  beer 
drinkers,  for  example,  with  those  observed  in  spirit  drinkers. 

"VII.  Another  branch  of  the  inquiry  into  remote  effects 
relates  to  the  influence  upon  offspring  of  the  habitual  use  of 


REPORT.  xiii 

alcohol,  or  of  its  excessive  use  just,  prior  to  fecundation  and 
during^  pregnancy.  Upon  these  points  we  have  little  definite 
and  accurate  information.  Connected  with  this  is  the  question 
of  hereditary  predisposition  to  alcoholism,  and  that  of  periodi- 
cal alcoholism  or  so-called  dipsomania,  in  which  the  desire  for 
alcoholic  drinks  is  considered  to  be  due  to  abnormal  nerve  struc- 
ture, and  to  be,  therefore,  a  symptom  of  a  particular  form  of 
disease. 

"  VIII.  In  each  of  these  lines  of  inquiry,  the  first  steji  should 
be  to  prepare  a  concise  statement  of  what  is  known,  carefully 
distinguishing  facts  reported  by  reliable  experimenters  and  ob- 
servers and  paying  little  attention  to  speculations  and  theories, 
except  for  the  purpose  of  formulating  definite  questions  with  an 
indication  of  the  possible  soui'ces  from  which  positive  answers 
may  be  derived.  This  part  of  the  work  can  probably  be  best 
done  in  the  library  of  the  Surgeon-General's  office  in  Washing- 
ton, and  it  would  occupy  the  time  of  a  skilled  man  for  several 
months." 

The  general  conclusions  of  this  report  were  approved  by  the 
main  committee.  The  Committee  on  the  Physiological  and 
Pathological  Aspects  of  the  Drink  Question  was  continued,  and 
Professor  H.  P.  Bowditch  of  the  Harvard  Medical  School,  Bos- 
ton ;  Dr.  William  H.  Welch,  Professor  of  Pathology  in  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  Baltimore ;  and  Dr.  G.  Alder  Blumer, 
Director  of  the  State  Insane  Asylum,  Utica,  N.  Y.,  were  added 
to  the  committee,  which,  somewhat  later,  was  increased  by  the 
addition  of  Dr.  W.  O.  Atwater,  Professor  of  Chemisti-y  in 
Weslej'an  University,  Middletown,  Conn.  The  committee  thus 
organized  proceeded  to  enter  on  the  following  investigations :  — 

I.  A  research  on  the  influence  of  pure  ethyl  alcohol  and  some 
alcoholic  drinks  upon  the  purely  chemical  processes  of  digestion, 
carried  out  under  the  direction  of  Professor  R.  H.  Chittenden  ; 

II.  A  research  upon  the  pathological  effects  on  the  tissues 
produced  by  the  long-continued  use  of  alcoholic  drinks,  made 
under  the  direction  of  Professor  W.  H.  Welch ; 

III.  A  research  on  the  influence  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  of 
pure  ethyl  alcohol  upon  the  growth  and  development  of  certain 
animals,  made  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  C.  F.  Hodge,  Pro- 
fessor of  Physiology  in  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Massa- 
chusetts ; 


xiv  RErOKT. 

IV.  The  preparation  of  a  bibliography  of  the  most  impor- 
tant literature  ou  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  by  Dr.  Bil- 
lings ; 

V.  The  preparation  and  issue  of  schemes  for  the  collection  of 
certain  data  with  regard  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Committee  of  Fifty,  November  16, 
1894,  the  Sub-Committee  on  the  Physiological  and  Pathologi- 
cal Aspects  of  the  Drink  Question  presented  a  report,  showing 
that  the  various  special  researches  above  named  were  being 
carried  on.  The  preliminary  bibliography  of  the  literature  on 
the  effects  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  drinks  had  been  printed.  It 
also  called  attention  to  the  following  facts  :  — 

"  That  the  experimental  researches  which  have  been  ordered 
or  proposed,  important  as  they  are,  will  have  only  an  indirect 
bearing  upon  some  of  the  most  important  cpiestious  to  be  con- 
sidered by  the  Committee  of  Fifty,  such,  for  example,  as  the 
following :  — 

"  I.  To  what  extent  does  each  alcoholic  drink  in  ordinary  use, 
more  especially  wine,  beer,  and  whiskey,  jDroduce  disease  and 
shorten  life  in  the  United  States,  or  in  certain  localities  in  the 
United  States? 

"  II.  AVhat  are  the  particular  forms  of  disease  which  each 
class  of  alcoholic  drinks  specially  tends  to  produce,  and  to  what 
special  constituent  of  the  drink  are  these  peculiar  effects  due  ? 

"  III.  Is  the  regular  consumption  of  a  moderate  quantity  of 
wine,  beer,  or  whiskey  conducive  to  the  maintenance  of  health 
and  the  working  power  in  any  class  of  men  ?  If  so,  what  class, 
and  what  is  the  average  quantity  that  is  thus  useful  ? 

"  IV.  What  is  the  quantity  of  whiskey,  wine,  or  beer,  which 
the  average  man  in  good  health  may  consume  daily,  without 
special  risk  of  injuring  his  health?  Does  this  vary  in  connec- 
tion with  variations  of  age,  of  climate,  or  of  occupation,  and,  if 
so,  what  are  these  variations  ? 

"  The  laboratory  researches  authorized  or  proposed  by  the  com- 
mittee bear  mainly  upon  question  II.  With  regard  to  the 
other  questions  it  proj)oses  to  attempt  to  obtain  infoi'mation  by 
the  collection  of  statistical  data,  and  for  this  purpose  it  proposes 
to  undertake  four  lines  of  inquiry,  as  follows :  — 

"  I.  To  address  a  circular  letter  to  a  large  number  of  men  in 
various  parts  of  the  country  who  are  above  forty  years  of  age. 


KEPORT.  sv 

and  are  engaged  in  mental  work  of  a  high  class,  inclosing  a 
form  to  be  filled  out  embracing  a  series  of  questions  with  regard 
to  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  by,  and  their  effects  upon,  the 
individual. 

"  II.  A  second  circular  letter  with  inclosed  forms  is  intended 
to  be  addressed  to  the  leading  family  physicians  of  the  country, 
to  obtain  information  for  each  person  thirty  years  of  age  and 
upwards  under  their  charge,  and  with  whose  habits  and  physical 
and  mental  conditions  they  are  acquainted,  giving  their  habits 
as  to  alcoholic  drinks  and  the  present  condition  of  their  health. 

"  III.  A  third  line  of  statistical  investigation  proposed  is  to 
obtain  from  the  large  hospitals  of  the  country  reports  with 
regard  to  the  habits,  use  of  alcoholic  drinks,  and  the  physical 
and  mental  condition  of  patients  twenty-five  years  of  age  and 
upwards  admitted  to  them  for  treatment,  the  object  being  to 
obtain  statistics  from  the  class  which  makes  use  of  hospitals,  to 
compare  with  those  derived  from  the  reports  of  private  physi- 
cians.    It  has  not,  as  yet,  been  j)rinted. 

"  In  connection  with  this  a  scheme  has  been  prepared  for  a 
collective  investigation  of  the  pathological  conditions  found  in 
the  bodies  of  those  dying  while  affected  with  acute  or  chronic 
alcoholism,  to  be  sent  to  large  municipal  hospitals. 

"  IV.  A  fourth  line  of  investigation  proposed  is  with  regard 
to  the  influence  of  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  ujjon  the  mental 
condition  of  those  using  them,  with  special  reference  to  the 
possibility  of  hereditary  transmission  of  certain  mental  and 
physical  effects  under  their  influence,  and  as  a  commencement 
of  these  inquiries  it  is  proposed  to  gather  the  data  called  for 
from  asylums  and  institutions  for  the  care  of  the  insane.  It  is 
believed  that  this  particular  branch  of  the  inquiry  might  well 
be  assigned  to  the  American  Medico-Psychological  Association, 
which  is  composed  mainly  of  superintendents  of  asylums  for  the 
insane,  and,  on  consultation  with  prominent  members  of  this 
Association,  it  is  believed  they  will  be  willing  to  undertake  it, 
and  also  the  collection  of  data  called  for  on  the  hospital  blank 
form  above  referred  to." 

In  September,  1895,  certain  experiments  relating  to  the  influ- 
ence of  alcohol  upon  the  process  of  infection  were  commenced 
in  the  Laboratory  of  Hygiene  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
by  Dr.  A.  C.  Abbott,  —  the  first  work  relating  thereto  being  on 


svi  REPORT. 

rabbits  under  the  influence  of  alcohol  to  the  stage  of  acute  in- 
toxication. The  details  of  these  experiments,  with  the  conclu- 
sions, were  given  in  a  paper  which  was  printed  in  the  "  Journal 
of  Experimental  Medicine,"  volume  i..  No.  3,  189G,  and  in  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  Association  of  American  Physicians,"  vol- 
ume ii.,  page  421.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  decided  to  have  a 
corresponding  series  of  experiments  carried  out  on  animals,  to 
ascertain  what  effects  would  be  produced  on  the  immunity  to 
certain  infectious  diseases  by  the  long-continued  use  of  alcoholic 
drinks,  and  these  experiments  were  undertaken  by  Dr.  Abbott, 
the  animals  employed  being  large  monkeys. 

The  Association  of  Superintendents  of  Institutions  for  the 
Insane  was  induced  to  take  up  the  matter  of  statistical  investi- 
gation of  the  relations  between  alcohol  and  insanity,  as  observed 
in  these  institutions.  A  schedule  of  questions  was  prepared 
and  sent  out  to  collect  this  data. 

In  the  report  presented  to  the  General  Committee,  November 
19, 1896,  it  was  stated  that  it  was  desirable  to  have  a  careful 
investigation  in  regard  to  the  metabolism  of  alcohol  and  alco- 
holic drinks  in  the  living  human  body,  as  bearing  upon  the 
question  as  to  what  extent  alcohol  is  consumed  in  the  living 
human  body,  thereby  acting  as  a  force  pi-oducer  and  a  food. 
This  investigation  was  undertaken  by  Professor  Atwater,  acting 
in  consultation  with  the  whole  committee. 

The  preliminary  report  of  the  results  obtained  by  Professor 
Hodge  was  printed  in  the  "  Popular  Science  Monthly "  for 
March,  1897,  page  594,  and  April,  1897,  page  796. 

Dr.  Blumer  resigned  from  the  membership  of  the  Committee 
of  Fifty  in  November,  1897,  and  his  place  was  filled  by  the 
appointment  of  Dr.  P.  M.  Wise  of  New  York. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Committee  on  Ethics  in  1896,  a  report 
by  Mr.  Walter  A.  Wyckoff,  prepared  under  the  direction  of 
Professor  W.  M.  Sloane,  giving  the  results  of  an  inquiry  into 
methods  of  instruction  with  regard  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic 
liquors,  and  especially  the  so-called  "  Scientific  Temperance  In- 
struction "  formulated  by  a  prominent  temj^erance  organization 
and  embodied  in  various  text-books,  was,  at  the  request  of  the 
Ethical  Committee,  referred  to  the  Committee  on  the  Physi- 
ological and  Pathological  Aspects  of  the  Drink  Question  for 
report,  and  for  the  presentation  of  a  scheme  of  satisfactory 


REPORT.  xvii 

instruction.  In  considering  this  question  it  was  aj^parent  that 
the  question  as  to  whether  alcoholic  drinks  are  in  any  sense  a 
food  was  one  of  very  considerable  importance,  and  one  which 
did  not  appear  to  have  received  such  a  definite  solution  as 
would  meet  the  general  approval  of  scientific  physiologists  and 
physicians,  although  the  prevailing  opinion  among  leaders  in 
physiological  science  is  that  alcohol  is  really  a  food. 

Just  at  this  time  the  opportunity  was  offered  to  make  a  series 
of  experiments  upon  this  point  by  means  of  a  recently  completed 
calorimeter  devised  by  Professors  Atwater  and  Kosa  of  Wes- 
leyan  University,  and  the  committee,  after  examining  this 
apparatus  and  the  general  plan  of  investigation  proposed  by 
Professor  Atwater,  were  satisfied  that  in  this  way  a  more  defi- 
nite answer  to  the  question  could  be  obtained,  and,  the  necessary 
funds  having  been  provided  by  the  General  Committee,  the 
work  was  at  once  commenced  and  has  been  continued  for  some 
four  years.  The  results  were  published  in  detail  as  a  Memoir 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  (volume  vili.,  Sixth 
Memoir,  Washington,  1902),  entitled  "  An  Experimental  In- 
quiry regarding  the  Nutritive  Value  of  Alcohol,"  by  W.  O. 
Atwater  and  F.  G.  Benedict. 

The  work  which  has  been  done  under  the  general  direction 
of  the  committee  may  be  summed  up  as  follows :  — 

I.  An  investigation  on  the  influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic 
drinks  upon  the  chemical  processes  of  digestion,  by  Professor 
R.  H.  Chittenden  and  Dr.  L.  B.  Mendel. 

II.  A  further  study  of  the  influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic 
drinks  upon  digestion  with  special  reference  to  secretion,  by  Pro- 
fessor R.  H.  Chittenden,  Dr.  L.  B.  Mendel,  and  Dr.  H.  C. 
Jackson. 

III.  An  investigation  on  the  effects  of  long-continued  doses 
of  alcohol  or  alcoholic  liquors  in  producing  organic  changes 
in  certain  tissues  and  organs  of  the  body,  made  by  Professor 
William  Welch  and  Dr.  J.  Friedenwald. 

In  this  connection  should  be  mentioned  an  investigation  made 
by  Dr.  H.  J.  Berkley  of  Baltimore,  on  the  lesions  produced  by 
the  long-continued  use  of  alcohol  on  the  cortical  nerve  cells  of 
the  brain  ("  Brain,"  pt.  Ixxii.,  1895,  pp.  473-496,  plates),  and 
also  one  by  Colin  C.  Stewart,  on  the  influence  of  acute  alco- 
holic poisoning  on  nerve  cells  ("  Journal  of  Experimental  Medi- 
cine," vol.  i.,  1896,  pp.  623-629). 


xviii  REPORT. 

IV.  An  investigation  as  to  the  effects  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic 
di-inks  on  the  growth,  development,  and  reproductive  powers  of 
animals,  by  Professor  C.  F.  Hodge  of  Clark  University. 

V.  An  investigation  on  the  influence  of  alcoholism  on  infec- 
tion and  immunity,  by  Professor  A.  C.  Abbott  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania. 

VI.  An  investigation  of  the  extent  to  which  alcohol  is  con- 
sumed in  the  living  human  body,  and  its  action  as  a  force 
producer  and  a  food,  by  Professors  W.  O.  Atwater  and  F.  G. 
Benedict  of  Wesleyan  University. 

VII.  An  investigation  on  the  relations  between  the  use  of 
alcoholic  drinks  and  insanity,  made  by  the  American  Medico- 
Psychological  Association. 

VIII.  A  statistical  investigation  as  to  the  relative  prevalence 
of  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  among  brain  workers  in  the 
United  States,  by  Dr.  J.  S.  Billings. 

IX.  An  investigation  of  the  opinions  and  teachings  of  lead- 
ing j)hysiologists  and  pathologists  of  the  present  day,  with 
regard  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  and  a  comparison  of 
these  with  the  teachings  of  text-books  in  use  in  the  common 
schools  of  this  country,  by  Professors  H.  P.  Bowditch  of  Har- 
vard and  C.  F.  Hodge  of  Clark  University. 

This  historical  sketch  of  the  development  of  the  plans  of 
research  of  the  Physiological  Committee  has  been  given  to  show 
that  it  was  clearly  recognized  that  the  field  for  investigation 
was  a  very  wide  one,  and  that  there  are  many  unsettled  ques- 
tions with  regard  to  the  physiological  and  pathological  action 
of  alcoholic  drinks  upon  the  human  body. 

With  the  funds  that  were  available  and  the  number  of  skilled 
experimental  investigators  whose  services  could  be  commanded 
for  work  of  this  kind,  it  was  impossible  to  undertake  anything 
like  a  complete  series  of  experimental  investigations,  or  reli- 
able and  satisfactory  statistical  inquiries  as  to  the  effects  pro- 
duced on  man  by  the  moderate  use  of  alcoholic  drinks.  The 
committee  did  not  consider  it  necessary  to  make  special  inqui- 
ries as  to  the  effects  produced  on  man  by  what  is  ordinarily 
termed  an  excessive  use  of  liquors,  since  the  evidence  that  such 
use  tends  to  produce  disease  and  shorten  life  has  now  so  accu- 
mulated that  detailed  statistics  on  this  point  are  unnecessary. 


REPORT.  rix 

The  object  which  the  committee  had  in  view  was,  as  indi- 
cated above,  to  ascertain  the  effects  of  the  occasional  or  habitual 
use  of  a  moderate  quantity  of  wine,  beer,  or  spirits  upon  the 
health  and  working  powers  of  man.  As  to  the  term  "  moderate 
quantity,"  the  committee  accepted  the  use  of  this  phrase  among 
English  physicians  as  formulated  by  Anstie,  viz.,  the  equivalent 
of  one  and  one  half  (l.])  ounces  of  absolute  alcohol  per  day,  or 
about  three  (3)  ounces  of  whiskey,  or  half  a  bottle  of  claret  or 
Khine  wine,  or  four  (4)  glasses  of  beer ;  it  being  understood 
that  this  is  to  be  taken  only  at  lunch  and  dinner,  and  that  the 
whiskey  is  to  be  well  diluted. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

As  the  result  of  their  investigations  and  deliberations  the 
committee  have  arrived  at  the  following  conclusions  :  — 

I.  The  effects  of  a  moderate  or  occasional  use  of  alcoholic 
drinks  upon  man  differ  greatly  in  different  individuals,  and 
depend  ou  constitutional  peculiarities,  age,  occupation,  climate, 
etc.  Most  of  them,  especially  the  ultimate  effects  upon  health, 
cannot  be  ascertained  with  much  accuracy  by  experiments  upon 
animals  or  upon  a  few  men  for  short  periods  of  time. 

II.  The  residts  of  the  many  exjjeriments  of  this  kind  which 
have  been  made  up  to  the  present  time  appear  to  us  to  be  fairly 
stated  in  the  papers  by  Professors  Abel,  Atwater,  Chittenden, 
and  Welch,  printed  with  this  report.  The  committee  agree 
upon  the  general  and  more  important  conclusions  of  these 
pajjers  after  careful  examination  and  personal  conference. 

III.  We  have  no  trustworthy  data  as  to  the  proportions  of 
total  abstainers,  occasional  drinkers,  regular  moderate  drinkers, 
and  positively  intemperate  persons  in  the  United  States.  From 
such  information  as  we  have,  it  seems  to  us  probable  that  of  the 
adult  males  in  this  country,  not  more  than  twenty  per  cent,  are 
total  abstainers,  and  not  more  than  five  per  cent,  are  positively 
intemperate  in  the  sense  that  they  drink  in  such  excess  as  to 
cause  evident  injury  to  health.  Of  the  remaining  seventy-five 
per  cent.,  the  majority,  probably  at  least  fifty  per  cent,  of  the 
whole,  are  occasional  drinkers,  while  the  remaining  twenty-five 
per  cent,  might  perhaps  be  classed  as  regular  moderate  drinkers. 

With  the  majority  of  these  occasional  drinkers,  and  with 
many  of  the  regular  moderate  drinkers,  such  as  those  whose 


XX  REPORT. 

drinking  is  limited  to  a  glass  of  wine  or  two  at  dinner,  no 
especial  effect  upon  health  seems  to  be  observed  either  by  them- 
selves or  their  physicians,  but  in  some  cases  the  drinking  is 
certainly  harmful,  while  in  a  few  it  is  thought  to  be  beneficial. 

IV.  Among  the  leading  brain  workers  of  the  United  States, 
as  indicated  by  the  statistics  in  the  table  on  page  313,  vol.  i.,  of 
this  report,  it  would  appear  that  about  eighty  per  cent,  use 
alcoholic  drinks  occasionally  or  regularly  in  moderation.  The 
opinions  of  these  men  as  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  in 
general  have  little  or  no  scientific  value,  but  are  of  interest  as 
showing  that  the  use  of  such  drinks  to  stimulate  mental  effort 
gives,  on  the  whole,  bad  results. 

We  believe  that  such  occasional  or  moderate  use  is  most 
likely  to  be  harmful  to  young  persons,  and  mainly  because  of 
the  danger  of  its  leading  to  excess  ;  and  that  the  cases  where  it 
is  useful,  otherwise  than  iu  disease,  are  mostly  those  of  persons 
over  fifty  years  of  age  and  when  the  alcoholic  beverages  are 
taken  with  the  last  meal  of  the  day. 

V.  The  special  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  are  mainly  due  to 
the  alcohol  they  contain,  and,  so  far  as  these  effects  are  harm- 
ful, the  other  substances  are  of  comparatively  small  importance. 
Fine  old  whiskeys  and  brandies  are  nearly  as  likely  to  produce 
injurious  effects  as  are  the  cheaper  grades  of  the  same  liquors, 
if  taken  in  the  same  quantities.  Some  wines  appear  to  delay  or 
check  the  digestive  process  by  reason  of  other  constituents  than 
alcohol,  as  is  shown  by  the  experiments  of  Professor  Chitten- 
den with  regard  to  the  effects  of  claret.  In  general  the  inju- 
rious effect  of  an  alcoholic  drink  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  alcohol  contained  in  it,  which  seems  to  be  the  chief  reason 
why  wine  and  beer  are  less  injurious  than  distilled  liquors. 

VI.  The  question  as  to  whether  a  given  alcoholic  drink  is  a 
food  or  a  poison  is  one  which  cannot  be  answered  by  any  short 
comprehensive  formula.  In  moderate  quantities,  beer,  wine, 
and  diluted  whiskey  are,  in  a  certain  sense,  foods ;  but  they  are 
seldom  used  for  food  purposes,  but  mainly  for  their  peculiar 
effects  on  the  brain.  In  large  quantities,  and,  for  a  few  persons 
of  i^eculiar  temperament,  even  in  moderate  quantities,  they  are 
poisons. 

VII.  Alcoholic  drinks  in  moderate  quantities  may  be  useful 
as  restoratives  in  fatigue  after  the  work  is  done,  but  they  often 


REPORT.  xxi 

produce  a  depressing  and  even  harmful  effect  when  used  just 
before  or  during  physical  or  mental  labor.  They  are  useless  as 
preventives  of  infectious  or  contagious  disease  ;  on  the  contrary, 
they  appear  to  lessen  the  power  of  the  organism  to  resist  the 
effects  of  the  cause  of  such  disease. 

VIII.  The  report  prepared  by  Dr.  H.  P.  Bowditch  of  Boston, 
and  Professor  C.  F.  Hodge  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  on  the  present 
instruction  on  the  physiological  action  of  alcohol,  is  believed  to 
be  a  correct  representation  of  the  facts,  and  to  justify  the  con- 
clusion that  much  of  the  methods  and  substance  of  the  so-called 
scientific  temperance  instruction  in  the  public  schools  is  unsci- 
entific and  undesirable.  It  is  not  in  accord  with  the  opinions 
of  a  large  majority  of  the  leading  physiologists  of  Europe  as 
shown  by  the  statement  printed  on  page  18  of  volume  i.  of  this 
Report.     This  appears  to  us  to  be  a  matter  of  grave  importance. 

IX.  It  does  not  seem  to  this  sub-committee  desirable  to  at- 
tempt to  give  systematic  instruction  to  all  children  in  the  pri- 
mary schools  on  the  subject  of  the  action  of  alcohol  or  of  alco- 
holic drinks.  To  older  children,  and  especially  those  in  the 
high  schools,  it  does  seem  proper  that  instruction  should  be  given 
as  to  the  principal  facts  known  about  the  use  and  effects  of  alco- 
holic drinks,  the  sociological  and  especially  the  ethical  relations 
of  the  subject,  the  means  which  have  been  tried  to  prevent  the 
evils  resulting  from  alcoholism  —  and  the  results,  —  the  object 
being  to  enable  them  to  form  an  intelligent  opinion  upon  the 
whole  subject,  especially  to  distinguish  between  mere  assertions 
and  scientific  evidence. 

X.  This  teaching  should  not  be  made  a  special,  isolated  mat- 
ter, but  should  be  a  part  of  some  elementary  instruction  in 
physiology  and  hygiene,  and  all  that  is  really  useful  and  desir- 
able can  be  given  in  a  brief  time,  equivalent  to  a  few  lessons  of 
an  hour  each,  following  the  lessons  on  food.  In  these  lessons 
might  be  taught  what  the  ordinary  alcoholic  drinks  are,  and  of 
what  and  how  they  are  made,  the  difference  between  simple  fer- 
mented drinks,  like  beer  and  wine,  and  distilled  liquor,  such  as 
whiskey,  the  natui-e  of  the  so-called  "  temperance  drinks,"  and 
the  general  effects  of  alcohol  as  a  stimulant  and  as  a  narcotic. 
It  might  be  taught  that  while  in  moderate  quantities  beer  and 
wine  may  be,  in  a  certain  sense,  a  food,  they  are  a  very  imper- 
fect and  expensive  kind  of  food,  and  are  seldom  used  for  food 


xxii  REPORT. 

purposes ;  that  they  are  not  needed  by  young  and  liealthy  per- 
sons, and  are  dangerous  to  them  in  so  far  as  they  tend  to  create 
a  habit ;  that  in  certain  cases  of  disease  and  weakness  they  are 
useful  in  quantities  to  be  prescribed  by  physicians ;  that  when 
taken  habitually  it  should  be  only  at  meals,  and,  as  a  rule,  only 
with  the  last  meal  of  the  day,  or  soon  after  it,  and  that  alcoholic 
drinks  of  all  kinds  are  worse  than  useless  to  prevent  fatigue 
or  the  effects  of  cold,  although  they  may  at  times  be  useful  as 
restoratives  after  the  work  is  done. 

It  should  also  be  taught  that  alcoholic  drinks  are  almost  al- 
ways a  useless  expense,  that  their  use  in  excess  is  the  cause  of 
much  disease,  suffering,  and  poverty,  and  of  many  crimes  ;  but 
that  such  use  is  sometimes  the  result,  rather  than  the  cause,  of 
disease. 

It  should  not  be  taught  that  the  drinking  of  one  or  two 
glasses  of  beer  or  wine  by  a  grown-up  person  is  very  dangerous, 
for  it  is  not  true,  and  many  of  the  children  know  by  their  own 
home  experience  that  it  is  not  true. 

Signed :  JoHN  S.  Billings,  Chaiitnan. 
W.  O.  Atwater, 

H.  P.  BOWDITCH, 

R.  H.  Chittenden, 
W.  H.  Welch. 


REPORT 

ON   THE 

PRESENT  INSTRUCTION  ON  THE  PHYSIOLO- 
GICAL ACTION  OF  ALCOHOL. 

By  dr.  H.  p.  BOWDITCH  and  DR.  C.  F.  HODGE. 


REPORT 


PRESENT  INSTRUCTION  ON  THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL 
ACTION  OF  ALCOHOL. 


Our  sources  of  information  for  this  report  are  the  following : 

I^irst.  Standard  text-books  in  common  use  in  colleges,  uni- 
versities, and  medical  schools. 

Second.  Letters  received  from  prominent  physiologists,  both 
in  this  country  and  Europe,  giving  their  opinions  on  this  sub- 
ject. 

Tliivd.  Text-books  "  indorsed  and  approved  "'  by  the  "  De- 
partment of  Scientific  Temperance  Instruction  "  of  the  Woman's 
Christian  Temperance  Union  for  use  in  the  public  schools. 

Foiirth.  Answers  of  public  school-teachers  in  reply  to  ques- 
tions as  to  fitness  and  value  of  the  books  and  results  of  so-called 
"  scientific  "  temperance  instruction. 

We  shall  endeavor  to  treat  data  from  these  sources  in  the 
above  order  and  in  such  manner  as  to  show  the  present  status 
of  teaching  of  the  subject.  No  attempt  wiU  be  made  in  this 
report  to  harmonize  conflicting  opinions. 

I.     STANDARD    TEXT-BOOKS    OF    PHYSIOLOGY. 

We  shall  consider  first  the  various  opinions  held  by  physiolo- 
gists upon  the  fundamental  question  of  the  food  value  of  alco- 
hol and  its  influence  upon  the  processes  and  organs  of  digestion, 
and  shall  make  but  little  reference  to  recent  investigations  which 
have  not  yet  found  their  way  into  standard  text-books,  these 
being  fully  considered  in  other  reports. 

Although  his  views  have  not  been  embodied  in  a  formal  text- 
book, the  name  of  Professor  Fick  has  been  long  associated  with 
opposition,  on    physiological   grounds,  to   the  use   of   alcohol.. 


4  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Fick  defines  a  poison  as  follows ;  "  We  may  unhesitatingly 
designate  as  a  poison  any  substance  which,  introduced  into  the 
blood  in  comparatively  small  amounts,  causes  disturbances  in 
the  functions  of  any  organ.  That  alcohol  is  such  a  substance 
cannot  be  doubted."  ^  He  goes  on  to  explain  that  alcohol 
differs  from  other  poisons  which  affect  the  nervous  system  in  a 
way  which  has  led  to  tlie  eiToneous  opinion  ("  irrige  Meinung  ") 
that  alcohol  is  a  food.  This  difference  consists  in  the  fact  that 
alcohol  is  oxidized  in  the  body.  "  It  is,  when  introduced  into 
the  blood,  oxidized  like  a  nutriment,  to  carbon-dioxide  and 
water,  and  this  oxidation  must  of  course,  like  the  oxidation  of 
albumen,  fat,  or  sugar,  produce  heat."  ^  But  this,  Fick  main- 
tains, does  not  prove  that  alcohol  can  be  rightly  considered  a 
food  unless  it  be  proven  that  the  energy  derived  from  its  con- 
sumption may  be  useful  to  the  body.  This  he  does  not  think 
clearly  demonstrated,  and  therefore  concludes  :  "  Although  the 
relations  of  the  oxidation  of  alcohol  to  that  of  the  true  nutri- 
ments in  the  animal  economy  have  not  yet  received  a  complete 
physiological  explanation,  it  is  certain  that  alcohol,  even  when 
taken  in  moderation,  cannot  be  classed  among  the  useful  nutri- 
ments." ^ 

Joined  with  the  view  of  Schmiedeberg,  that  alcohol  exerts 
only  a  soothing  or  narcotic  influence  upon  the  nervous  system, 
this  position  has  been  adopted  by  a  small  group  of  physiologists, 
Drs.  Gaule,  Forel,  and  Bunge.  We  have  quoted  these  some- 
what guarded  statements  of  Fick,  because  they  are  the  original 

1  "  Als  ein  Gift  werden  wir  ohne  Bedenken  jeden  Stoff  zu  bezeichnen 
haben,  der,  in  verhaltnissmassig  kleiner  Menge  dem  Blute  beigemischt,  Stcir- 
ungen  in  der  Verrichtung  irgend  welches  Organs  verursaeht.  Dass  der  Al- 
kohol  ein  solcher  Stoff  ist,  kann  nicht  bezweifelt  werden." 

"  "  Er  verbrennt  nanilich,  in  das  Blut  eingefuhrt,  wie  die  Nahrungsstoffe 
zu  Koblensaure  und  Wasser,  und  diese  Verbrennung  muss  naturlieh  wie  die 
Verbrennung  von  Eiweiss,  Fett  oder  Zueker  Warme  erzeugen." 

^  "  Wenn  auch  die  soeben  beriibrten  Beziehuugen  der  Verbrennung  des 
Alkohols  zur  Verbrennung  der  eigenliehen  Nahrungsstoffe  im  thierisehen 
Organismus  physiologisch  noch  nicht  vollstiindig  aufgekliirt  sind,  das  ist 
gewiss  :  zu  den  niitzlichen  Nahrungsstoffen  kann  auch  der  miissig  genossene 
Alkohol  nicht  geziihlt  werden." 

All  the  above  quotations  are  from  the  following  :  Adolph  Fick,  Die 
Alkoholfrage,  2d  ed.,  Dresden,  1895,  pp.  2-6.  A  further  discussion  of  this 
question  is  given  on  pp.  20,  21,  in  connection  with  the  opinions  of  Professors 
'  Kiihne,  v.  Voit,  and  Dastre,  as  expressed  in  their  letters. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  5 

sources  from  which  the  sweeping  statements  of  the  school  text- 
books, to  receive  attention  later,  have  been  derived. 

Bunge's  statement  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  Fick.  He 
says  :  — 

"  We  know  that  alcohol  is  mostly  oxidized  in  our  body.  .  .  .  Alcohol 
is  therefore,  without  doubt,  a  source  of  living  energy  in  our  body.  But 
it  does  not  follow  from  this  that  it  is  also  a  nutriment.  To  justify  this 
assumption  proof  must  be  furnished  that  the  living  energy  set  free  by 
its  oxidation  is  utilized  for  the  performance  of  a  normal  function.  It 
is  not  enough  that  potential  energy  is  transformed  into  living  energy. 
The  transformation  must  take  place  at  the  right  time  and  place  and  at 
definite  points  in  definite  elements  of  the  tissues.  These  elements  are 
not  adapted  to  be  fed  with  every  sort  of  oxidizable  material.  We  do 
not  know  whether  alcohol  can  fui-nish  to  the  muscles  and  nerves  a 
source  of  euergy  for  the  performance  of  their  functions.  ...  In  gen- 
eral alcohol  has  only  paralyzing  properties,"  etc.^ 

It  will  be  noted  that  Bunge  does  not  say  that  alcohol  is  not  a 
food,  but  that  it  has  not  been  clearly  proven  to  be  a  food,  two 
clearly  distinct  positions  which  are  often  confused. 

The  above  positions  differ  but  slightly  from  the  four  which 
follow,  viz.,  those  of  Professors  Howell,  Schiifer,  M.  Foster,  and 
Tigerstedt,  each  one  standing  for  the  dictum  of  one  of  our  best 
modern  scientific  writers  of  physiological  text-books. 

Professor  Howell  says :  — 

"  Alcohol  also,  when  not  taken  in  too  large  quantities,  may  be  oxi- 
dized in  the  body  and  furnish  a  not  inconsiderable  amount  of  energy. 
It  is,  however,  a  matter  of  controversy  at  present  whether  alcohol  in 

1  "  Wir  wissen,  dass  der  Alkohol  zum  grtissten  Theil  iu  unserera  Korper 
verbrannt  wird.  .  .  .  Der  Alkohol  ist  also  zweifellos  eine  Quelle  der  lebend- 
igen  Kraft  in  unserem  Korper.  Daraus  folgt  aber  docb  nicbt  dass  er  aueh 
ein  Nahrungsstoff  sei.  Um  diese  Annahme  zu  begriinden,  miisste  zuvor  der 
Nacbweis  gefiihrt  werden,  dass  die  bei  seiner  Verbrennung  frei  werdende 
lebendige  Kraft  verwerthet  werde  zur  Verrichtung  einer  norraalen  Func- 
tion. Es  ist  nicht  genug,  dass  chemische  Spanukriifte  iu  lebendige  Kraft 
sich  umsetzen.  Die  Umsetzung  muss  zur  rechten  Zeit  am  reehten  Orte  vor 
sich  gehen,  an  ganz  bestimmten  Puukten  ganz  bestimmter  Gewebselemente. 
Diese  Gewebselemente  sind  gar  nicht  darauf  eiugerichtet  mit  jedera  belieb- 
igen  Brennmaterial  gespeist  zu  werden.  Wir  wissen  nicht,  ob  der  Alkohol 
etwa  in  den  Muskeln  oder  Nerven  znr  Verricbtmig  ihrer  Functionen  die 
Kraftquelle  abgeben  kdnne.  .  .  .  Ueberhaupt  hat  der  Alkohol  nur  lahmende 
Eigenschaften,"  etc.  G.  Bunge,  Lehrbuch  der  physiologischen  und  paiholo- 
gischcn  Chemie,  Leipzig,  189i,  p.  124. 


6  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

small  doses  can  be  considered  a  true  food-stuff  capable  of  serving  as  a 
direct  source  of  energy  and  of  replacing  a  corresponding  amount  of 
fats  and  carbo-hydrates  in  the  daily  diet."  ' 

Professor  Schafer  says  :  — 

"  The  nutritive  value  of  alcohol  has  been  the  subject  of  considerable 
discussion  and  not  a  few  exjjerinients.  Some  of  these  tend  to  show 
that  in  moderate  non-poisonous  doses  it  acts  as  a  non-proteid  food  in 
diminishing  the  oxidation  of  proteid,  doubtless  by  becoming  itself  oxi- 
dized. Its  action,  however,  in  this  respect,  is  relatively  small  and, 
indeed,  a  certain  proportion  of  the  alcohol  ingested  is  exhaled  with 
the  air  of  respiration. 

"  Moreover,  in  large  doses,  it  may  act  in  the  contrary  manner,  in- 
creasing the  waste  of  tissue  proteid.  It  cannot,  in  fact,  be  doubted 
that  any  small  production  of  energy  resulting  from  its  oxidation  is 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  its  deleterious  influence  as  a  drug  upon 
the  tissue  elements,  and  especially  upon  those  of  the  nervous  system. 

"  It  is  of  interest,  in  connection  with  this  subject,  to  point  out  that 
alcohol  has  been  regarded  by  some  physiologists  as  probably  formed 
at  a  stage  in  the  metabolism  of  carbo-hydrates  prior  to  their  complete 
oxidation,  traces  of  alcohol  having  been  obtained  from  fresh  tissues 
by  distillation  with  water."  * 

Professor  Tigerstedt  says  :  — 

"  That  alcohol  is  chiefly  oxidized  in  the  body  is  quite  certain.  About 
10  per  cent,  of  the  alcohol  taken  into  the  body  leaves  the  body  unde- 
composed.  The  rest  is  oxidized  to  carbon-dioxide  and  water.  But 
whetiier  this  results  in  a  saving  of  the  substances  composing  the  body 
is  difficult  to  decide,  for  alcohol,  even  in  comparatively  small  doses, 
has  a  decidedly  poisonous  effect,  and  we  must  therefore  consider  only 
those  amounts  of  alcohol  by  which  this  effect  is  not  produced. 

"  If  now  alcohol  is  decomposed  in  the  body  without  protecting  other 
substances  from  decomposition  the  excretion  of  carbon-dioxide  should 
naturally  rise  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  alcohol  decomposed. 
This,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case.  At  least,  the  experi- 
ments of  Zuntz  and  Berdez  and  of  Geppert  show  that  the  ingestion  of 
a  non-toxic  dose  of  alcohol  is  not  followed  by  any  appreciable  increase 
of  carbon-dioxide  excretion. 

"  In  the  normal  nutrition  of  man,  however,  alcohol  can  play  but  a 
very  unimportant  part.     The  amount  of  alcohol  which  a  man  unaccus- 

1  Wm.  H.  Howell,  American  Text-Book  of  Physiology,  Phila.,  1896,  p. 
297. 

■  E.  A.  Schafer,  A  Text-Book  of  Physiology,  1898,  p.  882. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  7 

tomed  to  alcoholic  drinks  can  take  without  producing  symptoms  of 
intoxication  is  very  small,  i.  e.,  about  16-25  grams  which,  reckoning 
the  combustion  warmth  of  alcohol  at  7  Calories  per  gram,  would  pro- 
duce 112-175  Calories  which  amounts  to  4.5-7  per  cent,  of  the  daily 
heat  production  of  the  body.  Only  in  very  exceptional  cases  can  alco- 
hol have  any  practical  importance  as  a  nutriment.  It  is  especially  in 
the  case  of  acute  diseases  accompanied  by  diminished  digestive  power 
that  alcohol,  independently  of  its  action  on  the  nervous  system,  seems 
to  be  able  to  serve  as  a  valuable  nutriment." ' 

Professor  Foster  says  :  — 

"  For  though  observations  show  that  thS  greater  part  of  a  moderate 
dose  of  alcohol  is  oxidized  within  the  body,  and  so  serves  as  a  source 
of  energy,  man  has  recourse  to  alcohol  not  for  the  minute  quantity  of 
energy  which  is  supplied  by  itself,  but  for  its  powerful  influence  on 
the  distribution  of  energy  furnished  by  other  things.  .  .  .  For  the 
action  of  all  these  bodies  of  which  we  are  now  speaking,  in  contrast 

'  "  Dass  der  Alkohol  zum  grossten  Theil  im  Korper  verbrannt  wird  ist 
gauz  sicher.  Vou  dem  im  Magen  aufgenommeu  Alkohol  werdeu  etwa 
10  fc  unzersetzt  vom  Korper  abgegeben,  das  Uebrige  verbrannt  zu  Kohlen- 
saure  uud  Wasser. 

"  Ob  aber  dabei  die  Kbrpersnbstanz  erspart  wird  ist  schwer  zu  entscheiden, 
denn  der  Alkohol  iibt  ja  sclion  iu  verhiiltnissmassig  kleinen  Mengen  eine 
entschieden  giftige  Wirkuiig  aus,  uud  wir  miissen  daher  nur  solche  Alko- 
holmengen  in  Betracht  Ziehen,  bei  welchen  jede  derartige  Wirkung  ausge- 
sehlossen  ist. 

"  Weuu  nun  der  Alkohol  im  Korper  zersetzt  wird,  ohiie  audere  Substanzen 
vor  Zerfall  zu  sehiitzen,  so  sollte  natiirlich  die  COo  Abgabe  der  Zersetzteu 
Alkoholmengen  entspreclieud  steigen.  Dies  ist  aber  nicht  der  Fall.  Wen- 
igstens  zeigen  die  Versuche  von  Zuntz  und  Berdez  und  von  Geppert,  dass 
nach  Aufnahme  einer  nicht  toxisehen  Dosis  vou  Alkohol  keiue  nenueus- 
werthe  Steigerung  der  CO™  Abgabe  eintritt. 

"  Bei  der  normalen  Erniihrung  des  Menscben  kann  indessen  der  Alkohol 
nur  eine  ganz  unbeteudende  Rolle  spielen.  Diejenige  Quantitat  Alkohol, 
die  ein  an  alkoholiscbe  Getranke  nicht  gewohnter  Mensch  geniesseu  kann 
ohne  dass  Vergiftungssymptome  auftreten,  ist  nUmlich  eine  sehr  geringe 
und  betragt  nur  etwa  16-25  g.  was  bei  einer  Verbrennungswarme  von  7 
W.  E.  pro  g.,  112-175  W.  E.,  d.  h.,  bei  einem  taglichen  Bedarf  von  2500, 
W.  E.,  ^.o-lfo  des  Stoffwechsels  betragt.  Nur  in  seltenen  Ausiiabms- 
fiillen  kann  der  Alkohol  als  Nahrungsstotf  eine  practische  Bedeutung 
haben,  und  zwar  vor  allem  bei  akuten,  von  herabgesetztem  Verdaungsver- 
mogen  begleiteten  Krankheiten.  Bei  diesen  scheint  er,  unabhangig  von 
seiner  Einwirkung  auf  das  Nervensystem,  grade  als  NahrungsstofP  von 
grossera  Nutzen  sein  zu  kounen."  Tigerstedt,  Lehrbuch  der  Physiologie, 
Stockholm,  1898,  p.  97. 


8  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM 

with  the  actions  of  the  food-stuffs  proper,  is  not  only  complex  but  vari- 
able ;  so  complex  and  variable  that  simple  experience  is  at  present  a 
more  trustworthy  guide  than  speculative  physiology."  ' 

The  reader  should  at  this  point  refer  to  Dr.  Foster's  letter, 
see  Appendix  I.,  p.  68,  which  is  in  some  respects  a  more  ex- 
plicit statement  than  the  one  given  in  his  text-book.  This 
general  direction  should  also  be  followed  with  reference  to  the 
other  authorities  whose  letters  we  have  been  able  to  obtain. 

We  have,  thus,  a  group  of  physiologists  at  the  one  extreme 
who  take  grounds,  more  or  less  strongly,  against  any  dietetic 
use  or  value  of  alcohol,  even  this  group  admitting  that  it  is  not 
fully  proved  that  alcohol  is  not  a  food.  We  have  a  second 
group  who  are  inclined  to  favor  moderate  dietetic  use  of  alcohol, 
tending  to  class  it  with  non-proteid  foods,  but  still  maintaining 
that  its  classification  as  a  food  is  not  clearly  established.  Among 
these  we  should  also  place  Kirkes,  whose  only  reference  to  alco- 
hol is  as  follows :  — 

"  Among  these  "  (accessories  to  food)  "  must  be  placed  alcohol,  the 
value  of  which  within  moderate  limits  is  not  as  a  food  but  as  a  stimu- 
lant and  aid  to  digestion."  ^ 

A  third  group  of  physiologists  and  pharmacologists,  whether 
they  advocate  or  oppose  its  use,  evidently  consider  recent  discus- 
sions as  to  the  food  status  of  alcohol  unnecessaiy  quibbling. 
For  them  the  evidence  is  sufficient  to  pronounce  alcohol  in  mod- 
erate quantities  a  food.  The  following  are  citations  from  au- 
thors under  this  head :  — 

Sir  T.  Lauder-Brunton  says :  — 

"  The  conclusion  to  which  all  the  evidence  points  is  that  alcohol  is  a 
food,  and  in  certain  circumstances,  such  as  febrile  conditions,  it  may 
be  a  very  useful  food ;  but  in  health,  when  other  kinds  of  food  are 
abundant,  it  is  unnecessary,  and,  as  it  interferes  with  oxidation,  it  is 
an  inconvenient  kind  of  food."  ° 

Professor  M'Kendrick  says :  — 

"  If  oxidized  even  to  a  small  extent,  and  the  evidence  as  indicated 
points  to  the  oxidation  of  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  it  (95  per 

1  M.  Foster,  A  Text-Book  of  Physiology,  5th  ed.,  Lend.,  1891,  p.  837. 

2  Ifirkes,  Physiology,  Phila.,  14th  ed.,  1896,  p.  625. 

'  T.  Lauder-Brunton,  A  Text-Book  of  Pharmacology,  Therapeutics,  and 
Materia  Medica,  Lond.,  1887,  p.  768. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  9 

cent.),  alcohol  must  be  regarded  in  the  scientific  sense  as  a  food.  .  .  . 
While,  therefore,  it  must  be  classed  technically  as  a  food,  it  is  in  many 
respects  an  unsuitable  food  and  its  place  can  be  taken  with  great  ad- 
vantage by  other  substances."  * 

Professor  G.  N.  Stewart  says  :  — 

"  In  small  quantities  alcohol  is  oxidized  in  the  body,  a  little  of  it, 
however,  being  excreted  unchanged  in  the  breath  and  urine.  It  is 
therefore  to  some  extent  a  food  substance."  '^ 

Professor  Halliburton  says :  — 

"  Alcohol  is  thus  within  narrow  limits  a  food.  ...  It  is,  moreover, 
a  very  uneconomical  food  ;  much  more  nutriment  would  have  been  ob- 
tained from  the  barley  or  grapes  from  which  it  was  made.  The  value 
of  alcohol  within  narrow  limits  is  not  as  a  food,  but  as  a  stimulant, 
not  only  to  digestion,  but  to  the  heart  and  brain."  * 

Professor  H.  C.  Wood  says :  — 

'•  According  to  Dupr^  one  gram  of  alcohol  oxidized  in  the  body 
evolves  7134  units  of  heat,  while  the  same  amount  of  lean  beef  gives 
off  only  1482  units  of  heat.  It  has  been  estimated  that  9.5  ounces 
of  lean  beef,  equal  to  about  two  ounces  of  alcohol,  will  supply  the  force 
necessary  to  maintain  the  circulation  and  respiration  for  one  day. 
That  is,  four  ounces  of  strong  spirit  will  suffice  for  this  purpose.  .  .  . 
These  considerations  warrant  the  statement  that  in  a  certain  sense  al- 
cohol is  a  food,  i.  e.,  that  it  is  capable  of  being  used  for  the  purposes 
of  the  organism."  * 

Landois  and  Stirling  say  :  — 

"  Distilled  spirits  —  brandy,  whiskey,  gin  —  have  but  a  trifling  re- 
tarding influence  on  the  digestive  processes ;  and  when  one  considers 
their  action  on  the  secretory  glands,  it  follows  that  in  moderate  die- 
tetic doses  they  promote  digestion." 

"  About  95  per  cent,  of  it  [alcohol]  is  oxidized  in  the  body,  chiefly  into 
carbon  dioxide  and  water,  so  that  it  is  in  so  far  a  source  of  heat.  As 
it  undergoes  this  change  very  readily,  when  taken  to  a  certain  extent, 
it  may  act  as  a  substitute  for  the  consumption  of  the  body,  especially 
when  the  amount  of  food  is  insufiBcient.  (Hammond  found  that  when 
he  lived  on  an  insufficient  amount  of  food,  alcohol,  if  given  in  certain 

1  M'Kendrick,  Physiology,  Glasgow,  1889,  vol.  ii.  p.  19. 

2  Stewart,  Manual  of  Physiology,  1895,  p.  414. 

^  Halliburton,  Text-Book  of  Chemical  and  Pathological  Physiology,  1891, 
p.  600. 

*  H.  C.  Wood,  Therapeutics,  1901,  p.  284. 


10  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

quantity,  supplied  the  place  of  the  deficiency  of  food  and  he  even 
gained  in  weight.  If,  however,  sufficient  food  was  taken,  alcohol  was 
unnecessary.)  .  .  . 

"  Alcohol  in  small  doses  is  of  great  use  in  conditions  of  temporary 
want,  and  where  food  is  taken  insufficient  in  quantity.  AVhen  alcohol 
is  taken  regulaily,  more  especially  in  large  doses,  it  affects  the  ner- 
vous system,  and  undermines  the  psychical  and  corporeal  faculties, 
partly  by  the  action  of  the  impurities  which  it  may  contain,  such  as 
fusel  oil,  which  has  a  poisonous  effect  on  the  nervous  system,  partly 
by  the  direct  effects,  such  as  catarrh  and  inflammation  of  the  digestive 
organs,  which  it  produces,  and  lastly,  by  its  effects  upon  the  normal 
tabolism."  ^ 

Professor  Lusk  says :  — 

"  Alcohol  in  the  stomach  at  first  prevents  the  gelatinization  neces- 
sary in  proteid  for  peptic  digestion,  but  this  difficulty  is  of  no  great 
moment,  because  the  absorption  of  alcohol  is  rapid  and  complete.  .  .  . 
Alcoholic  beverages  coijibining  alcohol  and  flavor  promote  gastric  di- 
gestion, but  often  stimulate  the  appetite  in  excess  of  normal  require- 
ment." ^ 

Finally  we  may  quote  the  following  passage  from  Konig :  — 
"  Alcohol  in  moderate  doses  is  an  important  stimulant  to  digestion, 
and  this  explains  the  strong  craving  for  brandy  on  the  part  of  the  la- 
boring class  whose  food  consists  of  difficultly  digested  materials  (po- 
tatoes, bread,  etc.).   .  .  . 

"  C.  A.  Gluchinsky  has  recently  investigated  the  influence  of  alcohol 
on  digestion  and  has  found  that  it  is  greatly  slowed  as  long  as  alcohol 
is  present  in  the  stomach.  Alcohol  soon  (after  from  one  half  hour  to 
an  hour)  disappears  from  the  stomach,  however,  and  as  soon  as  this 
occurs,  acidity  of  the  stomach  increases  suddenly  up  to  two  to  three 
times  the  degree  of  acidity  when  alcohol  has  not  been  taken.  Corre- 
sponding with  this,  digestion  proceeds  more  rapidly  and  is  completed 
in  less  time,  in  spite  of  the  initial  arrest.  Hence  a  moderate  amount 
of  alcohol  taken  a  short  time  before  eating  must  exert  a  beneficial  in- 
fluence on  digestion."  ' 

>  Landois  and  Stirling,  Text-Book  of  Human  Physiology,  Loud.,  1891,  pp. 
348,  437. 

^  Lusk,  Am.  Text-Book  of  Physiology,  p.  979. 

8  "  Der  Alkohol  in  miissigen  Gaben  genossen,  bildet  ein  wichtiges  Reiz- 
mittel  flip  die  Verdauiigsthatigkeit  und  nicht  ohne  Grund  tritt  bei  der  ar- 
beitenden  Classe,  welche  sich  vorzugsweise  mit  schwer  verdaulieher  Nah- 
rung  (wie  Kartoffel  und  Brod  etc.)  eruahrt,  ein  starkes  Verlaugen  nach 
Brantwein  auf.  .  .  . 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION. 


11 


lu  concluding  this  topic  we  may  cite  a  few  more  passages 
from  standard  authorities,  placing  side  by  side  with  them  state- 
ments from  the  "  indorsed  and  approved "  public  school  text- 
books of  physiology.  While  these  books  will  be  treated  more 
fully  in  the  pi'oper  place,  the  following  form  of  presentation 
may  assist  in  making  clear  the  great  lack  of  coordination  be- 
tween these  different  departments  of  our  educational  system. 


Stajstdard  Text-Books. 
"It  may,  perhaps,  be  said  with 
safety  that  in  small  quantities  it 
(alcohol)  is  beneficial,  or  at  least 
not  injurious,  barring  the  danger 
of  acquiring  an  alcohol  habit,  while 
in  large  quantities  it  is  directly  in- 
jurious to  various  tissues."  * 

"  In  practice  we  find  that  in 
many  persons  a  small  quantity  of 
alcohol  improves  digestion ;  and 
that  a  meal  by  its  means  can  be 
digested  which  would  be  wasted."  ^ 

"  In  attempting  faii-ly  to  esti- 
mate the  action  of  stimulants,  es- 
pecially of  alcohol,  one  point  is  of 
utmost  impoi-tance  to  remember. 
It  is  this  —  alcohol  is  a  food !  If 
alcoholic  stimulants  were  mere  dis- 


"  Indorsed  and  Approved  " 
Physiologies. 

'•  Alcohol  is  universally  ranked 
among  poisons  by  physiologists, 
chemists,  physicians,  toxicologists, 
and  all  who  have  experimented, 
studied,  and  written  upon  the  sub- 
ject, and  who,  therefore,  best  un- 
derstand it."  ' 

'•  Alcohol  is  not  a  food  or  drink. 
IVIedical  writers,  without  excep- 
tion, class  alcohol  as  a  poison."  * 


"  IS  alcohol  a  food  ?  " 

"  What  do  you  think  about  it  ? 
(Question  to  the  class.)  ...  Do 
you  think  your  body  would  grow 
and  keep  well  and  strong  if  you 


"  C.  A.  Ghichinsky  hat  ebenfals  die  Wirking  des  Alkoliols  auf  die  Ver- 
dauung  gepriift  und  gefunden,  dass  dieselbe  stark  geheuuiit  wird,  so  lange 
noch  Alkohol  im  Magen  voihanden  ist.  Der  Alkohol  verschwindet  iiidess 
bald  (nacli  ^1  Stmide)  aus  dera  Magen  und  sobald  dieses  gescheben  ist, 
steigt  plotzlich  der  Sauregrad  des  Magens  auf  das  2-3  fache  des  Sauregrades 
ohne  Alkohol.  Dem  entsprechend  schreitet  auch  die  Verdauung  schneller 
vorwarts  und  ist,  trotz  der  aufiinglich  ungiiustigen  Wirkung,  in  kiirzerer 
Zeit  vollendet.  Ein  miissiger  Alkoholgenuss  einige  Zeit  vor  dera  Essen 
muss  daher  gunstig  auf  die  Verdauung  einwirken."  J.  Kdnig,  Chemie 
der  menschlichen  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Berlin,  1889,  p.  33. 

1  Howell,  Am.  Text-Book,  189G,  p.  298. 

^  Fothergill's  Practitioner^ s  Handbook  of  Treatment,  11th  ed.,  London, 
1897,  p.  34. 

^  Quoted  from  Youmans  in  Blaisdell's,  No.  2,  p.  232. 

*  Eclectic,  No.  3,  p.  67. 


12 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


engagers  of  static  force,  early  ex- 
haustion would  be  the  rule.  But 
as  alcohol  is  a  readily  oxidizable 
form  of  hydrocarbon,  it  is  also  a 
food  as  well  as  a  stimulant.  In 
fact  it  is  one  of  the  most  easily  as- 
similable forms  of  food,  and  very 
frequently  it  can  be  taken  and  util- 
ized when  no  other  form  of  food  is 
available.  While  it  is  a  stimulant, 
an  evoker  of  force,  it  also  supplies 
to  some  extent  that  force  in  its 
readily  oxidizable  self.  The  ex- 
periments of  the  late  Dr.  Anstie 
and  Dr.  Dupr^  have  placed  beyond 
all  question  or  honest  doubt  the 
fact  of  the  oxidization  of  alcohol 
within  the  organism.  If  alcohol  is 
oxidized  in  the  body,  then  alcohol  is 
a  true  food,  or  furnisher  of  force." 

"  The  question  of  the  propriety 
of  the  daily  use  of  alcohol  by 
healthy  men  is  at  present  a  very 
serious  one,  involving  so  many 
moral  and  politico-moral  issues 
that  it  cannot  be  fully  discussed 
here.  Suffice  it  to  state  as  obvious 
inferences  from  our  present  know- 
ledge of  the  physiological  action 
of  alcohol,  that  the  habitual  use 
of  moderate  amounts  of  alcohol 
does  not  directly  and  of  necessity 
do  harm  ;  that  to  a  certain  extent 
it  is  capable  of  replacing  ordinary 
food,  so  that  if  it  be  scanty,  or  even 
if  it  be  coarse  and  not  easily  di- 
gested, alcohol,  in  some  form  or 
other,  is  of  great  advantage  ;  that 
in  all  cases  it  should  be  taken  well 
diluted,  so  as  not  to  irritate  the 

^  Fothergill,  op.  cit.,  p.  254. 

*  Eclectic  Series,  No.  2,  p.  31. 

*  Authorized  Series,  No.  8,  p.  58. 


used  it  instead  of  bread  and  meat  ? 
No,  indeed  .  .  .  We  know  tliat 
alcohol  is  not  a  food."  " 

"  It  is  important  for  you  to  re- 
member that  alcohol  is  a  narcotic 
poison."  ' 

"  This  alcohol  is  a  liquid  poison, 
a  little  of  it  will  harm  any  one  who 
drinks  it,  and  much  of  it  would 
kill  the  drinker."  ■* 

"  It  must  be  remembered  that 
in  whatever  quantity,  or  wherever 
alcohol  is  found,  its  nature  is  the 
same.  It  is  not  only  a  poison,  but 
a  narcotic  poison."  ' 


"AJLCOHOL  A  POLSON." 

"A  poison  is  any  substance 
whose  nature  it  is,  when  taken 
into  the  body  either  in  small  or 
large  quantities,  to  injure  health  or 
destroy  life. 

"In  large  doses,  in  its  pure 
state,  or  when  diluted,  as  in  brandy, 
whiskey,  rum,  or  gin,  alcohol  is 
often  fatal  to  life.  Deaths  of  men, 
women,  and  children  from  poison- 
ous doses  of  this  drug  are  common. 

"  In  smaller  quantities,  or  in 
lighter  liquors,  beer,  wine,  and 
cider,  when  used  as  a  beverage,  it 
injures  the  health  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  taken."  ' 

"  This  alcohol  is  poisonous.  It 
is  its  nature,  even  in  small  quanti- 
ties, to  harm  any  one  who  drinks 
it.  It  is  capable  of  ruining  the 
character  —  as  well  as  the  health  ; 

2  Health  Series,  No.  1,  p.  30  £P. 
*  Pathfinder  Series,  No.  1,  p.  41. 
6  Dulaney's  Series,  No.  2,  p.  46  S. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  13 

stomach ;  and  that  wine  or  malt  and  if  one  takes  enough  it  will 
liquors  are  certainly  preferable  to  kill  him."  ' 
spirits"  (p.  377).  ..."  As  Lie- 
ben  also  found  that  this  substance 
exists  in  the  urine  of  dogs,  horses, 
and  lions,  and  as  A.  Kajewski  ob- 
tained it  from  healthy  rabbits,  it 
must  be  acknowledged  that  our 
present  knowledge  strongly  indi- 
cates that  alcohol  is  formed  and 
exists  in  the  normal  organism."  ' 

In  connection  with  this  last  statement  of  Dr.  Wood,  and  as 
also  bearing  upon  Schiifer's  testimony,  we  should  also  cite  the 
following  from  Hoppe-Syler.^  "  Traces  of  alcohol  are  found  in 
human  organs,  such  as  the  brain,  muscles,  liver,  not  only  after 
alcoholic  indulgence,  but,  without  this,  they  seem  to  be  con- 
stantly present." 

Considerable  space  in  all  the  public  school  text-books  is 
devoted  to  various  pathological  processes  which  do  not  properly 
belong  to  the  domain  of  physiology,  and  hence  are  rarely  touched 
upon  in  the  standard  text-books.  Among  these  obesity  and 
fatty  degeneration,  especially  of  the  heart,  and  sclerosis,  partic- 
ularly of  the  liver,  are  treated  as  though  alcoholic  indulgence 
were  practically  the  only  cause.  Landois  and  Stirling  remark 
(§  453)  that  fatty  degeneration  is  apt  to  occur  after  severe 
fevers,  or  after  artificial  heating  of  the  tissues,  after  poisoning 
with  phosphorus  and  arsenic,  and  "  in  drunkards."  Schmiede- 
berg  makes  the  effects  of  chronic  alcohol  poisoning  to  consist 
chiefly  in  fatty  degeneration  and  increase  of  connective  tissue. 
But  he  concludes  the  topic  by  saying,  "  Moderate  amounts 
of  alcohol  may  be  taken  daily  throughout  a  whole  lifetime 
without  producing  these  changes  in  the  tissues."  * 

'  H.  C.  Wood,  Therapeutics,  1901,  pp.  290,  284. 

-  Union  Series,  No.  2,  p.  33. 

■■'  "  Spuren  von  Alkohol  finden  sioh  in  den  menscblichen  Organen,  wis 
Gehirn,  Muskeln,  Leber,  nicht  allein  nach  Alkoholgenuss,  sondern  sie 
scheinen  auch  obne  letzeren  stets  vorbanden  zu  sein."  Hoppe-Syler, 
Handhuch  der  chemischen  Analyse,  Berlin,  1895,  p.  40. 

*  "  Massige  Mengen  von  Alkohol  kbnnen  taglich  ein  ganzes  Menschen- 
alter  hindiirch  genossen  werden,  obne  dass  solche  Gewebsveraiiderungen  als 
Folgen  auftreten."     Grundriss  der  Arzneimittellehre,  p.  41. 


14  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

II.    LETTERS   FROM   PHYSIOLOGISTS. 

An  important  part  of  the  data  collected  consists  in  letters 
obtained  from  physiologists,  both  in  this  country  and  abroad, 
giving  their  views  upon  this  subject.  A  special  effort  has  been 
made  to  secure  the  opinions  of  all  the  physiologists  who  have 
taken  an  active  part  in  the  movement  to  diminish  the  con- 
sumption of  alcoholic  beverages,  and  the  letters  from  these 
authorities  here  presented  contain  the  strongest  arguments 
which  science  can  furnish  in  favor  of  the  total  abstinence 
agitation. 

A  number  of  these  letters,  representing  all  shades  of  opinion, 
are  presented  in  Appendix  I.,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  at 
present  only  to  sum  up  as  briefly  as  possible  the  general 
position  of  physiologists  as  set  forth  in  this  body  of  corre- 
spondence. 

At  the  outset  circular  letters  of  inquiry  were  sent  first  to  all 
members  of  the  American  Physiological  Society,  seventy-two  in 
number;  second,  to  forty-five  physiologists,  hygienists,  and  spe- 
cialists in  allied  sciences,  holding  j3rominent  positions  abroad. 
In  this  way  it  was  hoped  to  obtain  valuable  expert  opinions 
from  practically  the  entire  scientific  world.  Below  is  a  copy 
of  the  letter  sent  to  American  physiologists.  The  circular  to 
foreign  authorities  was  similar,  except  that  it  gave  a  brief  de- 
scription of  "  scientific  temperance  instruction "  as  to  text^ 
books  and  time  requirements. 

(copy  of  circular.) 

Worcester,  Mass.,  October  1,  1897. 

The  Committee  of  Fifty  has  requested  me  to  gather  the  testi- 
mony of  physiologists  upon  two  topics  relating  to  the  practical 
teaching  of  the  physiology  of  alcohol.  Your  coojDeration  is 
very  respectfully  solicited 

First,  as  to  the  facts  at  our  disposal,  will  you  please  give  a 
list  of  the  points  which  you  consider  sufficiently  well  established 
and  of  essential  importance  to  the  education  of  medical  and 
imiversity  students  ?  We  wish  to  learn  your  own  view  of  the 
physiological  value  of  alcohol  as  a  food,  condiment,  stimulant, 
and  medicine  ;  its  influence  upon  the  tissues,  organs,  and  upon 
physiological  processes.     Please  give  also  a  list  of  the  impor- 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  15 

tant  points  that  you  think  are  not  sufficiently  well  proved  to 
form  a  part  of  our  teaching  material,  the  points  about  which 
there  is  too  much  present  difference  of  opinion. 

Second.  To  what  extent  do  you  think  it  wise  to  introduce 
alcoholic  physiology  into  elementary  public  school  courses  ?  I 
refer  to  the  "  Scientific  Temperance  Instruction  "  promoted  by 
the  W.  C.  T.  U.,  viz.,  the  requirement  by  law  that  the  subject 
be  given  considerable  prominence  throughout  the  school  course. 
Have  you  examined  any  of  the  "  approved  and  indorsed  "  phy- 
siologies ?  If  so,  what  ones  ?  What  is  your  opinion  of  them  ? 
Finally,  will  you  give  a  list  of  the  arguments  which  seem  most 
conclusive  to  yourself  either  for  or  against  this  method  of  pre- 
venting alcoholism  ? 

It  is  desirable  that  replies  be  sent  in  by  October  15,  but, 
if  that  is  not  convenient,  they  may  still  be  of  value  to  the  in- 
vestigation as  late  as  December  1. 

Sincerely  yours,  C.  F.  HoDGE. 

Thirty  members  of  the  American  Physiological  Society  re- 
plied to  the  circular ;  nine  of  this  number,  however,  did  not 
wish  to  enter  the  discussion.  Of  those  who  expressed  definite 
opinions  on  the  subject,  all  but  one.  Ph.  A.  Levene,  a  recent 
accession  to  the  ranks  of  American  physiologists,  who  should 
possibly  be  classed  among  a  small  group  of  foreign  scientists 
whose  position  will  receive  attention  later,  oppose  the  so-called 
"  scientific  temperance  instruction  "  as  it  is  now  being  promoted 
in  the  schools,  the  strong  conviction  of  a  number  being  that  it 
is  resulting  in  more  evil  than  good. 

The  following  foreign  authorities  were  consulted,  the  science 
pursued  by  each  being  indicated  by  abbreviations  as  follows :  — 

Physiology Ph. 

Psychiatry Psych. 

Hygiene Hy. 

Pathology Path. 

Pharmacology Phar. 

E.  W.  Boyce,  Path London,  England. 

Sir  T.  Lauder-Brunton,  Phar.     .     .     .  London,        " 

Sir  Michael  Foster,  Ph.  ....  Cambridge,  " 

Francis  Gotch,  Ph Oxford,  " 


16  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

W.  D.  Halliburton,  Ph London,  England. 

E.  A.  Schafer,  Ph London,         " 

C.  S.  Sherrington,  Ph Liverpool,     " 

T.  S.  Clouston,  Psych Edinburgh,  Scotland. 

J.  G.  M'Kendrick,  Ph Glasgow,  " 

Wm.  Rutherford,  Ph Edinburgh        " 

T.  Place,  Ph Amsterdam,  Netherlands. 

Sigmund  Exner,  Ph Vienna,  Austria. 

Richard    Freih.    v.    Krafft  -  Ebbing, 

Psych Vienna,       " 

Nandor  Klug,  Ph Budapest,  Hungary. 

Ferencz  Tangl,  Ph Budapest,  " 

Vasilij  Jakovlevic  Danilevskij,  Ph.    .  Charkow,  Russia. 

Ivan  Michajlovic  Dogiel,  Ph.  .     .     .  Kasan,  " 

Nikolaj  Jevgenjevic  Vvedenskij,  Ph.  St.  Petersburg,  Russia. 

Kenji  Osawa,  Ph Tokio,  Japan. 

Jiro  Tsuboi,  Hy Kyoto,     " 

Sophus  Torup,  Ph Christiania,  Norway. 

R.  A.  A.  Tigerstedt,  Ph Stockholm,  Sweden. 

Ch.  Richet,  Ph Paris,  France. 

Luigi  Luciani,  Ph Rome,  Italy. 

Angelo  Mosso,  Ph Turin,      " 

Gustave  Bunge,  Ph Basel,  Switzerland. 

August  Forel,  Psych Zurich,         " 

Justus  Gaule,  Ph Zurich,  " 

Hugo  Kronecker,  Ph Bern,  " 

A.  Baer Berlin,  Germany. 

Julius  Bernstein,  Ph Halle,  " 

Adolf  Fick,  Ph Wlirzburg,   •' 

Ditmar  Finkler,  Hy Bonn,  " 

Carl  Flugge,  Hy Breslau,        " 

Karl  Frankel,  Hy Halle,  « 

F.  L.  Goltz,  Ph Strassburg,  " 

Rudolph  Heidenhain,  Ph Breslau,        " 

Victor  Hensen,  Ph Kiel,  " 

Ludimar  Hermann,  Ph Konigsberg,  " 

Emil  Kraepelin,  Psych Heidelberg,  " 

J.  von  Kries,  Ph Freiburg,     " 

Willy  Kilhne,  Ph Heidelberg,  " 

Leonard  Landois,  Ph Greifswald,  " 

Eduard  Pflilger,  Ph Bonn,  " 

Karl  von  Voit,  Ph Munich,       « 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  17 

Of  the  scientists  thus  appealed  to,  only  thirteen  responded. 
Of  these,  five  are  from  Great  Britain,  and  they  should  be  con- 
sidered somewhat  by  themselves,  as  standing  for  the  present 
position  of  English  physiologists.  (See  letters  by  Foster, 
Clouston,  Halliburton,  Schafer,  and  Lauder-Brunton  in  Ap- 
pendix I.)  Of  the  other  eight,  seven  —  Baer,  Dogiel,  Fick, 
Forel,  Gaule,  Bunge,  Richet  —  are  more  or  less  actively  inter- 
ested in  the  cause  of  reform  in  the  use  of  alcohol.  They  tend, 
therefore,  to  regard  the  subject  from  a  sociological  rather  than 
a  physiological  point  of  view,  and  yet  it  is  interesting  to  notice 
that,  with  the  exception  of  Dr.  Baer,^  a  physician  in  a  peniten- 
tiary near  Berlin,  no  one  of  them  is  willing  to  indorse  the 
"  approved  text-books."  Even  Forel,  perhaps  the  most  ener- 
getic and  brilliant  advocate  of  total  abstinence  in  Europe,  who 
goes  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  alcohol  in  all  doses  is  a  poison, 
remarks,  in  speaking  of  educational  methods :  "  I  think  that  in 
America  somewhat  unwise  methods  have  been  adopted."  ^ 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  letters  of  these  seven  for- 
eign correspondents  represent  the  opinions  of  Continental  physi- 
ologists in  general.  The  letters  in  Appendix  I.,  and  the  names 
appended  to  the  statement  prepared  by  Professor  Foster,  furnish 
sufficient  proof  to  the  contrary.  The  method  of  obtaining  infor- 
mation and  opinions  by  means  of  circular  letters  is  objectionable 
on  acccount  of  the  varying  degrees  of  interest  in  the  subject  felt 
by  the  persons  addressed.  The  questions  asked  in  our  circular 
letter  cannot  be  properly  answered  without  devoting  some  little 
time  to  the  subject,  and  the  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  our 
attempt  to  gain  information  in  this  way  is  that  those  interested 
in  alcohol  reform  are  willing  to  take  the  time  to  answer.  Those 
who  are  not  have  other  woi'k  which  they  regard  of  more  impor- 
tance. 

In  order  to  gain  an  expression  of  expert  opinion  fuller  than 
that  elicited  by  the  above  circular  letter,  the  matter  was  brought 
before  the  members  of  the  International  Physiological  Congress 
which  convened  in  Cambridge  in  the  summer  of  1898.  To 
facilitate  the  work  Professor  Foster  drew  up  a  moderate  state- 

'  Even  this  solit.iry  advocate  of  "  Scientific  Temperance  Instruction " 
writes  :   "  Personally,  I  do  not  practice  total  abstinence." 

-  "  Ich  glaube  dass  in  Amerika  in  dieser  Beziehuug  tbeilweise  unrichtige 
Wege  betreten  worden  sind." 


18  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

ment  concerning  tbe  influence  of  alcohol  which  he  considered 
to  represent  the  views  of  physiologists  generally.  Those  who 
were  willing  were  then  asked  to  sign  the  statement,  either  as  it 
stood  or  with  such  modifications  as  each  might  wish  to  make. 
Certain  names  were  obtained  by  special  correspondence  after 
the  adjournment  of  the  Congress,  and  in  some  instances  this 
correspondence  drew  forth  expressions  of  opinion  which  are 
published  in  their  proper  place  in  Apf)endix  I.,  together  with 
the  letters  received  in  reply  to  the  circular. 
Dr.  Foster's  statement  is  as  follows  :  — 

"  The  physiological  efEects  of  alcohol,  taken  in  diluted  form,  in  small 
doses,  as  indicated  by  the  popular  phrase  'moderate  use  of  alcohol,'  in 
spite  of  the  continued  study  of  past  years,  have  not  as  yet  been  clearly 
and  completely  made  out.  Very  much  remains  to  be  done,  but,  thus 
far,  the  results  of  careful  experiments  show  that  alcohol,  so  taken,  is 
oxidized  within  the  body  and  so  supplies  energy  like  common  articles 
of  food,  and  that  it  is  physiologically  incorrect  to  designate  it  as  a 
poison,  that  is,  a  substance  wliich  can  only  do  harm  and  never  good  to 
the  body.  Briefly,  none  of  the  exact  results  hitherto  gained  can  be  ap- 
pealed to  as  contratlicting,  from  a  purely  physiological  point  of  view, 
the  conclusions  which  some  persons  have  drawn  from  their  daily 
common  experience,  that  alcohol,  so  used,  may  be  beneficial  to  their 
health."  * 

The  following  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  the  signers  of  this 
statement,  with  the  modifications  desired  by  certain  individuals 
given  in  the  foot-notes  :  — 

S.  von  Basch,  Director  Lab.  of  Experimental  Pathology,  Vienna. 

J.  Bernstein,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Halle. 

R.  Boehm,  Prof.  Pharmacology,  Leipzig. 

Arthur  Biedl,  Priv.  Doc.  Exp.  Path.,  Vienna. 

T.  Lauder-Brunton,  Lect.  Pharmacology,  St.  Barth's  Hosp.,  London.^ 

P.  J.  Dear,  M.  A.,  Oxford. 

Delzenne,  Prof.  Agr^g^  Physiol.,  Montpelier. 

^  With  reference  to  this  statement  it  should  be  observed  that  the  last 
clause  was  intended  as  a  protest  against  the  absolute  condemnation  of  al- 
cohol by  the  "  approved  "  text-books,  and  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  an  indi- 
cation that  those  signing  it  believe  that  the  usefulness  of  alcohol  as  a 
beverage  has  been  scientifically  demonstrated. 

^  Omitting  "  and  so  supplies  energy  like  common  articles  of  food  "  in  the 
sixth  and  seventh  lines,  and  inserting  "  in  such  doses  "  between  "  it  "  and 
"as  "  in  tbe  seventh  line. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  19 

M.  Dufour,  Prof.  Agr6g4  Physique,  Nancy. 
Eugene  Dupuy,  Paris. 

C.  Eckhard,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Giessen. 
S.  Exner,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Vienna. 

Ph.  W.  Engelmann,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Berlin. 

N.  Floresco,  Pr^parateur  Physiol.,  Paris. 

M.  Foster,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Cambridge,  England. 

M.  vou  Frey,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Zurich. 

J.  Gad,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Prague. 

Arthur  Gamgee,  Emer.  Prof.  Physiol.,  Owen's  Coll.,  Manchester. 

W.  H.  Gaskell,  Lect.  Physiol.,  Cambridge,  England. 

Fr.  Goltz,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Strassburg. 

P.  Griitzner,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Tubingen. 

W.  D.  Halliburton,  Pi-of.  Physiol.,  King's  College,  London. 

W.  J.  Hamburger,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Ecole  de  Med.  Vet.,  Utrecht. 

V.  Hensen,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Kiel. 

Geo.  T.  Kemp,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Univ.  of  Illinois. 

J.  von  Kries,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Freiburg. 

H.  Kronecker,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Bern. 

M.  Lambert,  Prof.  Agr^g^  Physiol.,  Nancy. 

J.  N.  Langley,  Lect.  Histology,  Cambridge,  England. 

L.  Landois,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Greifswald. 

J.  Latschenberger,  Vienna. 

J.  P.  Langlois,  Prof.  Agr^gd  Physiol.,  Paris. 

F.  Laulanie,  Directeur  Ecole  Vet.,  Toulouse. 

Frederick  S.  Lee,  Prof.  Physiol.,  New  York. 

A.  B.  Macallum,  Lect.  Physiol.,  Toronto. 

Hans  Meyer,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Marburg.^ 

N.  Mislawski,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Kasan,  Russia. 

K.  Mitsukuri,  Prof.  Zoology,  Tokyo,  Japan. 

A.  Mosso,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Turin. 

A.  Moussu,  Prof.  Pathol.,  Ecole  Vet.,  Alfort. 

H.  Munk,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Berlin. 

Otto  Nasse,  Prof.  Physiol.  Chem.  and  Pharmacology,  Rostock. 

H.  Ohrwall,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Upsala,  Sweden. 

D.  Noel  Paton,  Lect.  Physiol.,  Edinburgh,  Scotland. 

William  T.  Porter,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Harvard  Medical  School,  Boston. 
J.  M.  Purser,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

E.  Wayniouth  Reid,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Dundee. 
Sydney  Ringer,  Prof.  Clin.  Med.  Univ.  Coll.,  London. 
A.  RoUett,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Graz. 

'  Makes  sixth  line  read,  "and  so  can  supply  energy,"  omitting  "like 
common  articles  of  food."     Omit  "  poison,  that  is,  a  "  in  eighth  line. 


20  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Giorgio  Rotondi,  Assist.  PhysioL,  Genoa. 
H.  Sahli,  Prof.  Therap.,  Bern.i 

F.  M.  Sandwith,  Prof.  Medicine,  Cairo.'' 

E.  A.  Scliafer,  Prof.  PhysioL  Univ.  Coll.,  London. 
C.  S.  Sherrington,  Prof.  Physiol.  Univ.  Coll.,  Liverpool. 
L.  E.  Shore,  Lect.  Physiol.,  Camhridge,  England. 
J.  Burdon  Sanderson,  Prof.  Physiol.,  Oxford. 
P.  H.  Pye-Smith,  Lect.  Guy's  Hospital  Medical  School,  London. 
W.  H.  Thompson,  Prof.  PhysioL,  Belfast. 
Max  Verworn,  Prof.  Pliysiol.,  Jena. 

A.  D.  Waller,  Lect.  Physiol.,  St.  Mary's  Hospital  Medical  School, 
London. 

G.  Weiss,  Prof.  Agr^gd  Physique,  Paris. 

W.  H.  Wilson,  Prof.  School  of  Medicine,  Cairo. 

N.  Zuntz,  Prof.  Physiol.  Landwirtschaftliche  Hochschule,  Berlin. 

Comment  on  the  above  list  of  names  is  unnecessary. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
of  the  writers  above  mentioned  as  actively  engaged  in  the  tem- 
perance movement,  none  of  the  i^hysiologists  whose  letters  are 
presented  in  Appendix  I.  desire  to  be  regarded  as  advocates  of 
total  abstinence.  This  attitude  seems  to  be  quite  independent 
of  the  opinion  of  the  writers  as  to  the  nutritive  value  of  alco- 
hol. Most  of  them  consider  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of 
a  moderate  dose  of  alcohol  is  used  up  in  the  body,  thus  setting 
free  energy  in  the  form  of  heat,  to  be  conclusive  evidence  of 
nutritive  value,  for  this  is  what  happens  in  the  case  of  such 
recognized  nutriments  as  sugar,  starch,  and  fat.  Others,  how- 
ever, with  the  extreme  caution  of  true  science,  maintain  that 
"  the  oxidation  of  a  substance  in  the  animal  body  does  not  de- 
termine its  injurious  or  its  useful  effects  "  (Kiihne),  and  that 
"  a  substance  may  be  consumed  by  the  body  and  liberate  energy 
and  yet  be  harmful "  (v.  Voit).^  Dastre  proposes  to  recog- 
nize two  groups  of  heat-producing  substances,  viz.,  "  biother- 
mogens,"  including  the  true  nutriments  (proteids,  fats,  and 
starches)  which  produce  heat  in  connection  with  the  vital  pro- 
cesses of  the  body,  and  "pure  thermogens,"  including  alcohol, 
glycerine,  and  certain  organic  acids,  which  simply  produce  heat 

'  In  eighth  line  omit  "  poison,  that  is,  a." 

2  Add  "  with  food  "  after  "  form  "  in  first  line. 

'  It  will  be  noticed  that  this  is  the  opinion  held  by  Fiok,  see  p.  4. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  21 

having  no  relation  to  vital  processes  and  destined  to  be  got  rid 
of.  The  questions  thus  raised  are  of  considerable  theoretical 
interest  and  are  suggestive  of  new  lines  of  research,  but  at  the 
present  time  it  is,  to  say  the  least,  doubtful  whether  a  distinc- 
tion between  useful  and  useless  heat-production  can  be  main- 
tained. Moreover,  the  question  is  of  little  practical  importance, 
for  the  same  writers  who  thus  doubt  the  nutritive  value  of  alco- 
hol maintain  that  light  wines  and  beers  are  not  only  harmless 
but  even  desirable  adjuncts  to  our  diet.  Thus  Dastre  writes: 
"  I  believe  .  .  .  that  alcohol,  used  in  weak  and  reasonable  doses, 
in  good  wines,  at  meal  times,  is  an  excellent  thing,  very  agree- 
able, and  that  it  cannot  do  harm.  '  Bonum  vinum  laetificat  cor 
hominum.'  "  Von  Voit  expresses  the  opinion  that  "  a  moderate 
use  of  light  alcoholic  beverages,  as  for  instance  beer,  is  not  in- 
jurious to  health,"  and  Kiihne  remarks  that  "  when  one  sees 
how  many  normal,  hard-working  people  arrive  at  a  ripe  age, 
while  using  stimulants  with  discretion,  among  which  I  include 
the  moderate  use  of  alcohol,  one  does  not  find  good  reasons  for 
total  abstinence." 

UI.    INDORSED   AND   APPROVED   PUBLIC    SCHOOL   TEXT-BOOKS. 

Exactly  what  "  scientific  temperance  instruction  "  is  can  be 
learned  from  this  series  of  text-books,  now  twenty-five  in  num- 
ber ;  but  these  books  themselves  are  the  embodiment  of  a  move- 
ment for  temperance  instruction,  and  it  may  assist  us  to  their 
better  understanding  if  we  study  the  movement  itself  for  a  mo- 
ment and  attempt  to  discover  its  origin  and  estimate  its  general 
character. 

Scientific  temperance  instruction  in  the  United  States  had  its 
beginning  in  1879,  when  Mrs.  Mary  H.  Hunt  presented  to  the 
National  Convention  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union,  held  at  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  her  scheme  "  for  thorough 
text-book  study  of  Scientific  Temperance  in  public  schools  as  a 
preventive  against  intemperance."  '  In  response,  the  conven- 
tion passed  the  following  resolution  :  — 

"  Resolved,  That  this  Convention  consider  the  introduction  of  Scien- 

1  A  history  of  the  first  decade  of  the  Department  of  Scientific  Temper- 
ance instruction  in  schools  and  colleges  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temper- 
ance Union,  Boston,  Washington  Press,  383  Washington  Street,  1892, 
p.  6. 


22  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

tific  Temperance  text-books  into  the  regular  course  of  study  in  our 
public  schools  as  a  most  hopeful  line  of  work.  We  therefore  urge  the 
various  States  here  represented  to  take  immediate  action  to  secure  this 
important  study  taught  in  the  schools  of  their  various  localities." 

A  standing  committee,  with  Mrs.  Hunt  as  chairman,  was  ap- 
pointed to  "  translate  this  resohition  into  action."  The  follow- 
ing year,  1880,  the  work  was  reorganized  as  a  "  Department  of 
Scientific  Temperance  Instruction  in  Schools  and  Colleges," 
with  Mrs.  Hunt  as  a  "  National  Superintendent "  in  place  of 
the  standing  committee.  Of  this  change  she  writes  as  fol- 
lows :  1  — 

"  Here  was  a  turning  point  in  the  early  history  of  this  movement 
where,  guided  by  an  unseen  Power,  we  planned  '  more  wisely  than  we 
knew.'  This  unification,  resulting  from  plans  emanating  from  one 
source,  to  which  all  results  are  reported,  has  secured  a  unity  of  action, 
with  ability  to  concentrate  at  desired  points,  that  has  been  one  great 
secret  of  success.  A  great  army  with  battalions  in  every  State  and 
Territory,  regiments  and  companies  in  all  counties,  with  pickets  at 
ever}'  outpost,  and  all  under  the  guidance  of  one  head,  is  what  this 
centralization  foreshadowed." 

In  1888  this  movement  was  incorporated  as  a  department  of 
the  World's  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  and  Mrs. 
Hunt  assumed  the  title  "  National  and  International  Superin- 
tendent." "^  The  work  thus  spread  to  "  twenty  different  coun- 
tries besides  the  United  States." 

In  order  to  ascertain  something  definite  regarding  the  "  ap- 
proval and  indorsement "  of  the  text-books,  some  letters  were 
interchanged  with  the  Department  of  Scientific  Temperance 
Instruction,  and,  while  the  desired  information  was  not  given, 
we  learned  one  fact  of  importance,  viz.,  the  method  of  organi- 
zation of  the  "  Advisory  Board  "  which  is  supposed  to  have  this 
matter  in  charge.  The  letter  (April  13,  1897)  states :  "  The 
names  of  the  board  of  educators,  reformers,  physicians,  and 
clergymen  associated  with  Mrs.  Hunt  in  this  work  were  sug- 
gested by  Mrs.  Hunt  and  elected  by  vote  of  the  Woman's 
Christian  Temperance  Union." 

We  call  attention  to  these  things  to  make  clear  two  points : 
First,  the  purely  autocratic  character  of  the  movement.     For 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  7.  '■'  Loc.  cit.,  p.  101. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  23 

its  origination,  for  its  policy,  and  for  every  development  in  its 
history,  Mrs.  Hunt  is  practically  responsible. 

Second.  That  it  was  founded,  from  its  very  beginning,  on  the 
text-book  theory  of  instruction,  and  has  therefore  had  behind  it 
the  powerful  influence  of  the  text-book  publishing  firms  through- 
out the  country. 

The  true  character  of  the  movement  is  well  set  forth  in 
one  of  the  publications  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union. 

"  This  is  not  a  physiological,  but  a  temperance  movement.  In  all 
grades  below  the  high  school  this  instruction  should  contain  only  physi- 
ology enough  to  make  the  hygiene  of  temperance  and  other  laws  of 
health  intelligible.  Temperance  should  be  the  chief  and  not  the  sub- 
ordinate topic  and  should  occupy  at  least  one  fourth  the  space  in  text- 
books for  these  grades."  ^ 

The  above  platform  expresses  in  few  words  the  animus  of  the 
whole  movement.  It  is  frankly  and  honestly  the  total  absti- 
nence reform,  a  movement  in  this  country  often  connected  with 
partisan  jjolitics  and  with  some  denominations  associated  with 
religious  work.  As  is  generally  the  case  when  feeling  and  pre- 
judice run  high,  the  temptation  has  been  irresistible  to  either 
manufacture  evidence  or  stretch  it  over  points  that  it  does  not 
cover  ;  to  call  "  scientific  "  everything  that  happens  to  agree 
with  particular  prejudices,  and  to  relegate  to  the  limbo  of  human 
error  aU  the  evidence  that  appears  for  the  other  side.  Another 
characteristic  feature  of  this  movement  has  been  the  flattery  of 
authors  who  favor  the  views  to  be  inculcated  with  such  appella- 
tions as  "  greatest  living  authority,"  "  foremost  scientist,"  "  the 
wise  physician  of  to-day,  who  is  abreast  of  the  modern  investi- 
gations concerning  this  di-ug,"  "  author  of  great  prominence," 
"  most  skilled  in  his  profession,"  "  eminent  scholar,"  etc.  These 
phrases  are  rarely,  if  ever,  applied  to  persons  who  are  recognized 
by  men  of  science  as  authorities  on  this  question. 

To  give  cfl^ect  to  this  policy  of  compulsory  "  scientific  tem- 
perance education,"  laws  have  been  enacted  in  nearly  all  the 
States  of  the  Union.  This  has  usually  been  effected  without 
much  opposition,  the  excellence  of  the  motive  tending  to  disarm 
criticism.     The  present  New  York  law,  however,  which  is  one 

1  Science  Temperance  Monthly  Advices,  March,  1892,  p.  4. 


24  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

of  the  most  stringent  that  has  ever  been  enacted,  was  placed 
upon  the  statute  books  in  spite  of  the  organized  and  strenuous 
opposition  of  the  teachers  of  the  State  who  were  in  entire  sym- 
pathy with  the  general  principle  of  temiierance  instruction  and 
who  had  done  excellent  work  under  the  more  reasonable  law  of 
1884. 

The  laws  of  the  different  States,  most  of  which  will  be  found 
in  Appendix  II.,  differ  greatly  as  to  their  provisions.  In  their 
simplest  form  "■  Physiology  and  hygiene,  which  in  both  divisions 
of  the  subject  shall  include  special  instruction  as  to  the  effects 
of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  on  the  human  sys- 
tem "  (Massachusetts  law),  are  placed  on  the  list  of  prescribed 
studies.  Such  laws  have  been  obviously  found  insufficient  to 
force  the  "  approved  and  indorsed  "  text-books  upon  the  public. 
Accordingly  a  text-book  clause  has  been  frequently  added,  com- 
pelling the  use  of  text-books  which  contain  a  definite  propor- 
tion, usually  one  fourth  or  one  fifth,  for  graded  schools,  and 
twenty  pages  of  temperance  matter  in  books  intended  for  high 
school  use.  A  definite  number  of  lessons,  generally  thi-ee  les- 
sons per  week  for  fourteen  weeks  each  year  from  the  primary 
to  second  year  in  the  high  school,  has  also  been  made  compul- 
sory, and  further,  penal  clauses,  removal  from  office  (District 
of  Columbia  law),  or  fines  (New  York  law),  have  been  incor- 
porated into  a  number  of  the  statutes.  The  bill  presented  dur- 
ing the  winter  of  1898-99  to  the  Massachusetts  legislature  may 
be  taken  to  represent  the  latest  effort  of  the  department  of 
"  scientific  temperance  education,"  and  a  brief  account  of  the 
discussion  to  which  it  led  may  therefore  be  introduced  in  this 
connection. 

This  bill  ^  (see  Appendix  II.)  defined  more  accurately  than 
the  existing  law  the  amount  of  time  to  be  devoted  to  temper- 
ance teaching  and  jjrovided  a  penalty  in  case  of  failure  on  the 
part  of  school  committees  to  conform  to  the  law. 

The  committee  on  legislation  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical 
Society,  acting  under  instructions  from  the  society,  appeared 
in  opposition  and  presented  a  bill  ^  providing  for  instruction  in 
the  action  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  to  such  classes  and  in 
such  manner  as  school  committees  may  determine  (see  Appen- 

*  Known  as  the  "  Morgan-Hunt  Bill,"  Senate,  41. 

*  Known  as  the  "  Myers  Bill,"  House,  817. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  25 

dix  II.).  In  behalf  of  the  former  bill  appeared  three  members 
of  the  "  Massachusetts  Central  Committee  for  the  Promotion 
of  Scientific  Temperance  Instruction  in  the  Public  Schools," 
who  introduced  evidence  which  "  may  be  roughly  classified  as 
follows :  — 

"  1.  Dissertations  on  the  evils  of  intemperance. 

"  2.  Certifications  of  Mrs.  Hunt's  uprightness  of  character 
and  nobility  of  intentions  coupled  with  broad  insinuations  that 
those  who  oppose  her  bills  are  in  league  with  the  liquor  in- 
terests. 

"  3.  Statements  in  regard  to  the  beneficent  effects  of  similar 
laws  in  other  States  as  proved  by  a  decrease  in  the  consumption 
of  beer  and  the  good  health  of  the  troops  during  the  late  war."  ^ 

Evidence  belonging  to  the  first  and  second  classes  required, 
of  course,  no  answer ;  that  of  the  third  class  was  easily  shown 
in  the  hearing  before  the  legislative  committee  to  be  entirely 
misleading. 

The  latter  bill  was  supported  — 

1.  By  a  committee  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society,  who 
presented  the  result  of  a  canvass  of  school  superintendents  and 
teachers  showing  an  overwhelming  preponderance  of  opinion 
in  favor  of  the  bill  and  abundant  evidence  of  the  failure  of  the 
present  law  to  accomplish  the  desired  results.^ 

2.  By  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  who 
testified  to  the  efforts  of  the  "  scientific  temjjerance  "  people  to 
secure  the  dismissal  of  state  emjdoyees  suspected  of  not  being 
sufficiently  in  sympathy  with  their  own  extreme  views. 

3.  By  the  most  prominent  educators,  physicians,  and  clergy- 
men of  the  community,  some  of  whom  had  favored  "  scientific 
temperance  "  legislation  in  1885. 

The  fact  that  in  a  State  like  Massachusetts  educators  gener- 
ally united  against  more  strenuous  legislation  and  in  favor  of  a 
less  exacting  measure  is  of  great  significance.  After  fourteen 
years'  experience,  the  solid  front  of  opposition  presented  by 
Massachusetts  teachers  and  educators  was  decisive  proof  that 
legislation  in  this  direction  had  gone  too  far.  The  reasons  for 
this  opposition  must  be  sought  wholly  in  the  methods  rather 
than  in  the  object  of  this  "  scientific  temperance  "  propaganda. 

'  Dr.  G.  W.  Fitz,  letter  in  Boston  Transcript,  March  31,  1899. 
'  For  a  fuller  presentation  of  this  evidence,  see  pp.  38-44. 


26  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Among  these  reasons,  tlie  character  of  the  approved  text-books 
is  probably  the  most   important,  as    tlicse  books  embody  the 
arbitrary  and  unpedagogical  character  of  the  movement. 
Dr.  Fitz  thus  briefly  states  the  case :  — 

"  The  points  of  opposition  can  be  summed  np  as  follows  :  (1)  The 
specification  by  law  of  the  amount  of  physiology  and  hygiene  to  be 
taught  in  the  schools  and  of  the  time  to  be  devoted  to  it,  a  specifica- 
tion not  made  for  any  other  subject ;  (2)  the  impossibility,  from  scien- 
tific and  pedagogic  considerations,  of  teaching  physiology  and  patho- 
logy to  children  ;  (3)  the  irrationality  of  the  idea  that  a  frequent 
repetition  of  exaggerated  statements  develops  character ;  (4)  the 
danger  of  familiarizing  the  children  of  Massachusetts,  who  in  the 
large  majority  of  cases  have  temperate  homes,  with  the  methods  and 
effects  of  evil  conduct;  (5)  the  preposterousness  of  the  attempt  to 
force  teachers  and  school  committees  to  act  contrary  to  their  convic- 
tions :  (6)  the  failure  of  the  supporters  of  the  Morgan-Hunt  bill  to 
consult  the  teachers  or  to  study  the  school  conditions  in  a  way  which 
would  make  it  possible  for  them  to  devise  rational  methods  of  in- 
struction." 

After  prolonged  hearings,  the  Committee  on  Education  gave 
the  petitioners  for  the  former  bill  "  leave  to  withdraw  "  and  re- 
ported that  the  latter  bill  "  ought  not  to  pass,"  thus  leaving 
the  existing  law  in  force. 

Approved  and  indorsed  public  school  text-books  are  com- 
monly published  in  series  of  three  or  four,  adapted,  supposedly, 
for  primary,  intermediate  grammar,  grammar,  and  high  school 
use.  The  following  list  ^  gives  the  books  in  each  series  with 
publishers.  It  will  be  noted  that  there  are  in  all  twenty-three 
different  books,  i-epresenting  seven  different  publishing  firms. 
Excepting  for  the  present.  Dr.  Martin's  text-book,  which  will 
receive  special  attention  later,  they  may  all  be  treated  together, 
since  they  are  all  constructed  on  the  same  lines.  While  this  is 
essentially  true,  it  should  be  specially  noted  that  eight  of  the 
remaining  twenty-two  books  are  published  anonymously.  These 
are,  Authorized  Series,  No.  1 ;  Dulaney's  Series,  Nos.  1  and 
2  ;  Pathfinder  Series,  Nos.  1  and  2 ;  and  Union  Series,  Nos.  1, 
2,  and  3.  None  of  these  books  are  vouched  for  by  any  authori- 
tative writer's  name.  Still  they  have  received  unqualified  "  in- 
dorsement "  of  the  Department  of  "  Scientific  Temperance  In- 
»  See  p.  29. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  27 

struction."    For  example,  in  the  indorsement  of  the  Pathfinder 
Series  we  are  informed :  — 

"  The  above  are  the  series  originally  prepared  (as  their  general 
title  indicates)  to  supply  the  demand  created  by  the  laws  for  temper- 
ance instruction  in  public  schools  in  the  United  States.  They  were 
written  by  experts  under  the  supervision  of  the  Scientific  Department 
of  the  National  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  published  by 
the  instigation  of  the  same,  and  have  been  carefully  revised  from  time 
to  time,  under  the  same  supervision,  to  keep  them  abreast  with  the 
latest  teachings  of  science. 

"  Being  both  teachable  and  well  adapted  to  grade,  their  educational 
value,  as  proven  by  school-room  tests,  is  of  the  highest  order.  We 
therefore  cordially  indorse  and  highly  recommend  the  Pathfinder 
Series  for  use  in  schools. 

Maet  H.  Hunt, 
National  and  International  Superintendent  of  the  Scien- 
tific Department  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union  ;  Life  Director  of  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation. 

Advisory  Board.     Joseph  Cook,  William  E.  Sheldon,  Albert  H. 
Plumb,  D.  D.,  Daniel  Dorchester,  D.  D." 

An  indorsement  of  this  general  character  is  printed  upon  the 
back  of  the  title-page  of  text-books  approved  by  the  W.  C.  T.  U., 
and  so  extensive  and  so  well  organized  are  its  brandies  through- 
out the  United  States,  and  so  effectively  is  the  work  of  regulat- 
ing the  character  of  the  text-books  done,  that  publishers  have 
found  it  difficult  at  times  to  sell  text-books  which  have  not  this 
mark  of  official  approval  or  which,  at  any  rate,  do  not  teach  doc- 
trines in  conformity  with  those  of  the  organization  referred  to. 

How  far  this  supervision  keeps  the  text-books  "  abreast  with 
the  latest  teachings  of  science  "  a  single  example  will  suffice  to 
show.  Steele's  "  Hygienic  Physiology  "  (No.  3  of  the  Pathfinder 
Series)  contains  on  pp.  177-179  a  clear  statement  of  the  doc- 
trine that  alcohol  is  eliminated  entirely  unchanged.  The  sev- 
eral successive  editions  of  this  book  contain  the  above-quoted 
indorsement  dated,  in  the  last  edition,  June,  1889.  Now  the 
weight  of  scientific  evidence  in  favor  of  the  oxidation  of  alcohol 
in  the  body  is,  as  elsewhere  set  forth,  absolutely  overwhelming. 
Even  Dr.  Benjamin  W.  Richardson,  of  London  (than  whom  no 
writer  on  the  effects  of  alcohol  is  more  often  quoted  in  temper- 


28  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

ance  publications),  in  one  of  his  well  known  Cantor  lectures  on 
Alcohol,'  delivered  in  1874,  declares  that  "  while  it  is  true  that, 
under  certain  circumstances,  alcohol  taken  into  the  body  will 
pass  o£E  in  the  secretions  unchanged,  the  quantity  so  eliminated 
is  the  merest  fraction  of  what  has  been  injected." 

In  other  words,  fourteen  years  after  Sir  Benjamin  Richardson 
had  taken  pains  to  show  that  this  doctrine  which  the  text-book 
teaches  is  utterly  untrue,  the  indorsement  signed  by  Mrs.  Huut 
as  superintendent  and  by  four  persons  as  members  of  the  Ad- 
visory Board  of  the  Scientific  Department  of  the  W.  C.  T.  U. 
stated  that  the  book  had  been  revised  to  keep  it  abreast  with 
the  latest  teachings  of  science,  and  this  indorsement  has  re- 
mained in  the  editions  up  to  the  present  time. 

In  1895  the  attention  of  the  Department  of  Scientific  Tem- 
perance Instruction  of  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  was  called  to  this  and 
other  errors  in  this  specific  book  as  types  of  errors  in  the  in- 
dorsed books  generally.  The  only  reply  was  a  circular  published 
a  year  and  a  half  later  purporting  to  be  prepared  at  the  instance 
of  Christian  churches  and  allied  philanthroijic  organizations, 
and  stating  that  this  and  twenty  other  "  approved  "  or  "  in- 
dorsed "  physiologies  had  been  carefully  examined  by  a  com- 
mittee of  "  eminent  medical  experts,"  "  occupying  the  very  first 
rank  in  their  profession,"  and  that  "  after  minute  and  careful 
examination  "  "  not  a  single  member  "  "  rejJorts  finding  them 
inaccurate,  but  exactly  the  reverse." 

With  regard  to  these  "  eminent  medical  experts  "  it  may  per- 
haps be  proper  to  remark  that  their  names  would  not  be  likely 
to  suggest  themselves  to  physiologists  as  those  of  authorities 
in  this  particular  subject,  though  some  of  them  are  eminent  in 
other  departments  of  medicine. 

1  Lecture  IV.  On  the  Position  of  Alcohol  as  Food.  See  pages  107-111 
of  Ten  Lectures  on  Alcohol,  by  Benjamin  W.  Richardson,  M.  A.,  M.  D., 
F.  R.  S.,  National  Temperance  Society  and  Publication  House,  New  York, 
1880. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION. 


LIST   OF    BOOKS    EXAJIINED,    WITH   THE   ABBREVIATIONS    WHICH   WILL 
BE    USED   IN   REFERRING    TO   THEM. 


ABBSETUTIOM. 


Authorized  Physiology  Series.     American  Book 
C'omiJany. 
No.  1.  Health  for  Little  Folks.    Anonymous. 

Authorized  Series,  No.  1 
No.  2.  The  Human  Body  and  How  to  Take 
Care  of  It,  by  James  Johonnot  and 

Eugene  Bouton,  Ph.  D.  "  "         No.  2 

No.  3.  Anatomy,    Physiology    and    Hygiene. 

R.  S.  Tracy,  M.  D.  "  "         No.  3 

Brands'  Physiology,  Hygiene,  Narcotics.  Leach, 
Shevvell  &  Sanborn. 
Good  Health  for  Children  (Primary).    Orestes 

M.  Brands.  Brands,  No.  1 

Health  Lessons  for  Beginners.     Same  author  "  No.  2 

Blaisdell  Series.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1896  and  1897. 
The  Child's  Book  of  Health.  Albert  F.  Blais- 
dell, M.  D.  BlaisdeU,        No.  1 
How  to  Keep  Well.  Albert  F.  Blaisdell,  M.  D.  "  No.  2 
Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live.  Same  author.              "  No.  3 
Dulaney's  Series.  Wm.  J.  C.  Dulaney  Co.,  Bal- 
timore. 
Dulaney's  Primer  of  Physiology.     Anonymous.     Dulaney's,      No.  1 
Dulaney's  Physiology.     Anonymous.                             "                No.  2 
Eclectic  Ediicational  Series.     American  Book 
Company. 
The  House  I  Live  in.     Eli  F.  Brown,  M.  D.          Eclectic,      No.  1 
Youth's  Temperance  Manual.  Eli  F.  Brown, 

M.  D.  "  No.  2 

The  Eclectic  Guide  to  Health.  Eli  F.  Brown, 

M.  D.  "  No.  3 

StoweU's  Health  Series.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Co., 
1896. 
A  Primer  of  Health.  Charles  H.  Stowell,  M.  D.  Health  Series,  No.  1 
A  Healthy  Body.  Charles  H.  Stowell,  M.  D.        "  "        No.  2 

The  Essentials  of  Health.  A  Text-book  on 
Anatomy,  Physiology,  Hygiene,  Alcohol, 
and  Narcotics.  "  "       No.  3 

Pathfinder  Series.     American  Book  Co. 

Child's  Health  Primer.  Anonymous.  Pathfinder  Series,  No.  1 

Young  People's  Physiology.     Anonymous.  "  "        No.  2 


30  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Lessons  in  Hygiene.     Anonymous.  Pathfinder  Series,  No.  3 

Hygienic  Physiology,  by  Joel  D.  Steele,  Ph.  D.        "  "        No.  4 

The  Union  Series.     E.  H.  Butler  &  Co.,  Phila. 

Physiology  and  Health,  No.  1.     Anonymous.  Union  Series,    No.  1 
Physiology  and  Health,  No.  2.     Anonymous.       "  "        No.  2 

Physiology  and  Health,  No.  3.     Anonymous.       "  "        No.  3 

The  Human  Body  and  the  Effects  of   Nar- 
cotics.    Martin.  H.  Holt  &  Co. 

Quotations  have  already  been  given  from  a  number  of  the 
approved  books.  A  list  of  similar  citations  has  been  prepared 
containing  one  or  more  from  each  book.  Since  they  are  all  so 
much  alike,  however,  we  shall  now  present  only  one  qiiotation 
from  each  series,  selecting  these  under  the  main  topic  of  the 
food  value  of  alcohol. 

"  Alcohol  a  Poison.  —  The  nature  of  alcohol  is  that  of  a  poison.  .  .  . 
It  has  often  been  urged  that  men  have  been  known  to  drink  alcoholic 
liquors  for  a  long  time  and  yet  live.  A  great  English  j^hysician  said 
concerning  this,  "  The  stomach  and  other  organs  of  the  body  may  be 
so  hardened  and  changed  by  alcohol  that  it  may  seem  to  fit  them  for  a 
long  time,  but  the  alcohol  will  all  the  while  be  doing  its  fatal  work.'  "  ^ 

^^  Alcohol  as  a  Poison.  —  Any  substance  capable,  when  absorbed 
into  the  blood,  of  injuring  health  or  destroying  life,  is  a  poison. 
Alcohol  is  capable  of  destroying  life  when  taken  in  sufficient  quanti- 
ties, as  has  been  proved  by  numerous  instances  of  death  following  the 
drinking  of  spirits  on  a  wager,  or  a  draught  of  brandy  or  gin  taken  in 
ignorance  by  a  child.     Remember  this  — alcohol  is  A  poison."  " 

"  Alcohol  a  Poison.  —  A  cat  or  dog  may  be  killed  by  causing  it  to 
drink  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol.  A  boy  once  drank  whiskey  from 
a  flask  he  had  found,  and  died  within  a  few  hours.  His  death  was 
caused  by  the  alcohol  in  the  whiskey.  Many  people  have  been  poi- 
soned by  liquor  containing  alcohol.  ...  It  is  in  the  nature  of  alcohol 
to  make  drunkards."  ' 

"Any  drink  that  contains  alcohol  is  not  a  food  to  make  one  strong; 
but  is  a  poison  to  hurt,  and  at  last  to  kill."  (A  category  of  crimes 
follows.)  "  You  may  say  that  all  men  who  drink  liquor  do  not  do 
such  terrible  things.  That  is  true.  A  little  alcohol  is  not  so  bad  as  a 
great  deal.  But  even  a  little  makes  the  head  ache  and  hurts  the 
brain  and  nerves.  ...  A  man  who  never  drinks  liquor  will  get  well 
where  a  drinking  man  would  surely  die."  * 

1  Authorized  Series,  No.  2,  p.  35-37.         ^  Blaisdell,  No.  3,  pp.  84  ff. 
s  Brands,  No.  1,  19  fB.  and  27.  *  Dulaney's,  No.  1,  p.  33  £f. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  31 

"  Alcohol  is  a  colorless  liquid  poison.  Its  presence  makes  what  was 
before  good  fruit  juice  a  poisonous  liquid  "  (p.  27).  '•  We  now  know 
that  fermentation  changes  entirely  the  nature  of  the  substance  upon 
which  it  acts.  In  this  case  it  changes  a  food  to  a  poison.  To 
attempt  to  drink  fermented  liquors  moderately  has  led  to  the  hopeless 
ruin  of  untold  thousands."  ' 

"  We  can  find  nothing  about  it  [alcohol]  that  gives  us  any  idea  that 
it  is  a  food.  .  .  .  Alcohol  is  not  in  any  sense  a  food."  " 

"  It  is  not  a  food.  We  have  shown  that  alcohol  and  all  spirituous 
liquors  are  poisonous.  For  this  reason  alone  we  should  not  expect  to 
find  them  valuable  for  food.  .  .  .  Then  again,  close  observation  of  its 
effects  on  man  does  not  warrant  us  in  believing  that  it  has  any  value 
whatever  as  a  food."  ' 

"  Alcohol  is  not  a  food,  for  it  cannot  build  up  any  part  of  the  body. 
It  contains  no  mineral  substance  and  will  not  make  healthy  fat."  * 

'•  Alcohol  not  a  Food.  —  You  have  learned  that  food  supports  life. 
Alcohol  will  not  nourish  or  build  up  the  body  or  any  of  its  parts  ;  it  is 
its  nature  to  injure  health  and  destroy  life.    Alcohol  is  not  a  food."  ' 

The  above  may  serve  to  demonstrate  the  character  of  these 
books  as  well  as  hundreds  of  similar  passages  which  could  be 
given.  When  these  are  compared  with  the  standard  authorities 
already  referred  to,  it  is  clear  how  great  is  the  disadjustment 
between  this  public  school  education  and  that  in  our  colleges, 
universities,  and  medical  schools.  Moreover,  school-children 
now  have  ready  access  to  libraries,  and  there  they  may  easily  find 
statements  which  modify  and  even  directly  contradict  the  most 
emphatic  statement  of  their  books.  It  is  little  wonder  that 
educators  and  teachers  oppose  "  scientific  "  temperance.  It  is 
no  part  of  our  present  purpose  to  discuss  the  truth  or  falsity  of 
these  statements.  "We  are  endeavoring  solely  to  present  the 
teaching  of  alcohol  physiology  as  it  actually  exists.  Until 
scientific  investigation  is  able  to  furnish  more  definite  and 
uniform  data,  it  would  seem  self-evident  that  compulsory  educa- 
tion, especially  in  the  form  of  text-book  memorizing,  could 
result  in  nothing  but  the  widespread  demoralization  of  our 
youth.  They  can  hardly  escape  the  conviction  that  an  attempt 
is  being  deliberately  made  to  deceive  them  for  a  special,  sup- 
posedly moral,  purjjose. 

1  Eclectic  Series,  No.  1,  pp.  27,  28.       ^  Health  Series,  pp.  74,  75. 

'  Health  Series,  No.  3,  p.  55.  •*  Pathfinder  Series,  No.  1,  p.  14. 

^  Union  Series,  No.  2,  p.  67. 


32  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

The  argument  constantly  advanced  to  excuse  this  lack  of 
adjustment  is  that  elementary  physiology  should  not  touch  upon 
medical  uses  of  alcohol.  This  is  emphatically  stated  in  the 
published  "  Standard  for  Temperance  Physiologies,"  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

"  This  effort  to  disabuse  the  minds  of  the  rising  generation  of  the 
fallacies  wliich  lead  to  drink  habits  should  purposely  avoid  reference 
to  the  medical  use  of  alcohol.  As  by  common  consent  its  lay  pre- 
scription is  condemned,  the  question  of  its  use  as  a  remedy  may 
properly  be  relegated  to  medical  treatises,  as  out  of  place  and  mislead- 
ing in  a  school  textrbook." 

But  it  must  be  generally  admitted  that  there  cannot  be  one 
truth  for  elementary  schools,  and  truth  exactly  contradicting  it 
for  colleges  and  medical  schools.  There  is  but  one  science  of 
physiology.  And,  furthermore,  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  has 
passed  almost  as  completely  beyond  the  control  of  the  medical 
profession  as  has  that  of  other  common  articles  of  diet. 

The  statements  already  quoted,  and  we  shall  add  a  few  more, 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  text-books  are  written  with  a  delib- 
erate purpose  to  frighten  the  children,  the  younger  the  better, 
so  thoroughly  that  they  will  avoid  all  contact  with  alcohol,  an 
attempt  fraught  with  danger  on  account  of  the  natural  reaction 
of  healthy  children,  boys  especially,  to  such  exaggerated  state- 
ments. On  no  other  theory,  it  would  seem,  can  such  statements 
as  the  following  be  explained :  — 

"  Alcohol  sometimes  causes  the  coats  of  the  blood  vessels  to  grow 
thin.     They  are  then  liable  at  any  time  to  cause  death  by  bursting."  ' 

"Worse  than  all,  when  alcohol  is  constantly  used,  it  may  slowly 
change  the  muscles  of  the  heart  into  fat.  Such  a  heart  cannot  be  so 
strong  as  if  it  were  all  muscle.  It  is  sometimes  so  soft  that  a  finger 
could  easily  be  pushed  through  its  walls.  You  can  think  what  would 
happen  if  it  is  made  to  work  a  little  harder  than  usual.  It  is  liable 
to  stretch  and  stop  beating  and  this  would  cause  sudden  death."  ^ 

"  Many  people  are  made  crazy  by  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors.  In 
some  asylums  where  these  people  are  kept,  it  has  been  found  that 
nearly  one  half  of  the  crazy  people  were  made  crazy  from  this  cause. 
Not  all  of  these  were  drinkers  themselves.     It  often  happens  that  the 

'  Authorized  Series,  No.  1,  p.  61. 

^  Brands,  No.  1,  Good  Health  for  Children,  p.  69. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  33 

children  of  those  who  drink  have  weak  minds  or  become  crazy  as  they 
grow  older."  ' 

"  Do  you  remember  what  we  said  about  beer  making  some  people 
fleshy  ?  We  said  that  the  muscles  became  soft  and  filled  with  fat. 
Because  the  heart  is  a  muscle,  it,  too,  may  become  fatty  from  drink- 
ing beer.  This  makes  it  larger  and  at  the  same  time  softer  and 
weaker.  Physicians  call  this  disease  '  the  fatty  heart '  because  there 
is  so  much  fat  in  the  muscles  of  the  heart.  At  last  the  heart  becomes 
so  weak  it  cannot  do  its  work,  and  suddenly  death  occurs.  From 
this  we  learn  that  some  alcoholic  drinks  may  cause  a  disease  of  tiie 
heart  which  no  physician  can  cure,  and  which  may  result  in  sudden 
death."  ^ 

"  Sometimes  tlie  stomach  is  so  hurt  by  alcohol  that  the  drinker 
dies."  ^ 

'•  There  is  one  form  of  this  disease,  called  alcoholic  consumption, 
which  is  caused  by  alcohol.  The  drinker  looks  well,  till  suddenly 
comes  a  '  dropped  stitch,'  or  a  pain  in  the  side.  Then  follows  diffi- 
culty of  breathing  and  vomiting  of  blood,  then  a  rapid  passage  to  the 
grave  ;   for  medicine,  food,  change  of  air,  all  prove  useless."  * 

"  A  noted  murderer  confessed  that  never,  but  once,  did  he  feel  any 
remorse.  Then  he  was  about  to  kill  a  babe,  and  the  little  creature 
looked  up  into  his  face  and  smiled. 

" '  But,'  he  said,  '  I  drank  a  large  glass  of  brandy,  and  then  I 
did  n't  care.'  "  ° 

These  are  but  a  few  citations  among  many  that  might  be 
given.  The  books,  especially  those  intended  for  the  lower 
grades,  fairly  bristle  with  statements  of  a  character  to  work 
upon  the  fears  of  the  reader,  and  remind  one  in  this  respect  of 
patent  medicine  advertisements. 

"  Such  a  treatise  as  the  New  York  law  contemplates  cannot 
be  written  by  a  scientific  man."  *  This  remark  by  Dr.  Jordan 
applies  to  the  whole  machinery  of  scientific  temperance  text- 
book making.  Speaking  of  those  who  are  connected  with  the 
approval  and  indorsement  of  the  text-books,  he  continues :  — 

"  Indeed,  they  have  the  efifrontery  to  demand  of  a  scientific  author 
in  treating  a  certain  scientific  subject  in  the  school  courses  that  he 

1  Idem.  No.  1,  p.  44.  -  Health  Series,  No.  1,  pp.  47,  48. 

»  Dulaney's,  No.  1,  p.  88. 

*  Dulaney's,  No.  2,  p.  123;  Pathfinder,  No.  2,  p.  91. 

^  Dulaney's,  No.  2,  p.  186;  Pathfinder  Series,  No.  2,  p.  179. 

'  Popular  Science  Monthly,  1896,  p.  351. 


34  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

shall  introduce  only  so  much  of  the  subject  as  shall  bear  on  a  certain 
reform  tliat  they  are  advocating.  Can  even  earnestness  of  purpose  or 
the  importance  of  the  reform  be  a  shadow  of  an  excuse  for  such  a 
course  ?  " 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  interesting  to  quote  the  remark 
of  the  author  of  an  approved  series  of  text-books  to  a  member 
of  this  committee :  "  I  have  studied  physiology,"  said  he, 
"  and  I  do  not  wish  you  to  suppose  that  I  have  fallen  so  low  as 
to  believe  all  of  the  things  I  have  to  put  into  those  books." 
That  he  had  fallen  low  enough  to  put  them  in  without  believing 
them  did  not  seem  to  disturb  his  mind. 

Among  the  writers  of  the  text-books  which  we  are  consider- 
ing, Prof  essor  H.  N.  Martin  is  perhaps  the  only  one  who  can  be 
properly  regarded  as  a  professional  physiologist  of  high  stand- 
ing, and  it  is  therefore  interesting  to  compare  the  statements 
with  regard  to  alcohol  in  his  text-book  for  medical  students 
with  those  which  he  puts  forth  when  he  is  writing  to  satisfy  the 
requirements  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union. 
These  statements  are  here  presented  in  parallel  columns. 

MARTIN. 

Human  Body,  Elementaey.'      Human  Body,  Advanced  Coctrse. 

"  Has  alcohol  a  just  claim  to  be  "  Alcohol.  There  are  perhaps 
called  a  food  ?  Is  alcohol  a  tissue-  no  common  articles  of  diet  con- 
forming food  ?  To  this  the  an-  cerning  which  more  contradictory 
swer  is  certainly.  No ;  so  far  at  statements  have  been  made  than 
least  as  useful  tissue  is  concerned  alcoholic  drink.  This  depends 
(since  it  contains  no  nitrogen,  upon  their  peculiar  position  :  ac- 
etc).  cording  to  circumstances,  alcohol 

"  Is     alcohol     a    strengthening  may    be    a  poison   or    be    useful  ; 

food  ?     To  this  the  answer  is.  No.  when  useful    it  may  be  regarded 

Does  alcohol  keep  up  the  heat  of  either  as  a  force  regulator  or  as  a 

the  body  ?     To  tliis  question,  also,  force  generator.     It  is  sometimes 

the  answer  is  No,  though  this  may  a  valuable  medicine,  but  it  does  no 

seem  a  strange  view  of   the   fact  good  to  the  healthy  body.     If  not 

that    a    drink    is    often    taken    to  more    than    two    ounces    (which 

'  warm  one  up.'  "  would  be  contained  in  about  four 

Dr.  Martin  evades  asking  or  ounces  of  whiskey  or  two  quarts  of 
attempting  to  answer  the  clear  lager  beer)  are  taken  in  the  twenty- 
physiological  question.  Is  alcohol  four  hours,  they  are  completely  oxi- 
^  Indorsed  and  approved. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  35 

capable  of  yielding  energy  to  the    dized  in  the  body  and  excreted  as 

body    (as    do    carbohydrates    and    water  and  carbon  dioxide.     In  this 

fats)  ?    and    is    enabled    to    con-    oxidation  energy  is  of  course  liber- 

clude  :  —  ated  and  can  be  utilized.  ...  If 

"  The  study  of  alcohol  as  an  ar-    the    facts    lead    us    to    conclude, 

tide  of  diet  leads  therefore  to  the    against  the  extremists,  that  it  is  to 

result  that  it  cannot  fairly  be  re-    a  certain  extent  a  food,  it  is  never- 

garded  as  a  food."  ^  theless  a  dangerous  one ;  even  in 

what  we  may  call  '  physiological ' 

quantities,  or  such  amounts  as  can 

be  oxidized  in  the  body."  ■ 

We  feel  obliged  in  this  connection  to  call  attention  to  the 
manner  in  which  scientific  authorities  are  misquoted  in  order 
to  appear  to  furnish  support  to  "  scientific  temperance  instruc- 
tion." In  the  "  School  Physiology  Journal,"  Mary  H.  Hunt, 
editor,  November,  1897,  an  editorial  occurs  entitled  "  The 
Findings  of  Science."     It  reads  in  part  as  foUows  :  — 

"  During  the  past  two  years  two  important  papers  containing  ori- 
ginal investigations  upon  the  effects  of  alcohol  have  been  published  in 
this  country.  In  each  case  '  the  writer  had  previously  doubted  the 
universal  poisonous  action  of  alcohol,  and  had  openly  expressed  a 
strong  belief  in  its  food  and  stimulative  value  '  (from  what  authority 
this  is  quoted,  we  are  unable  to  state).  As  results  of  these  investiga- 
tions, however,  Dr.  Chittenden  of  Yale  University  finds  that '  amounts 
of  alcohol  equal  to  five  per  cent,  are  markedly  injurious  and  retard 
digestion,'  and  Professor  Hodge  of  Clark  University  arrives  at  the 
conclusion  that  '  alcohol  always  lowers  working  power,  and,  in  some 
degi-ee,  interferes  with  growth.'  " 

The  paper  first  referred  to  is  evidently  Chittenden  and 
Mendel's  "  Influence  of  Alcohol  and  Alcoholic  Drinks  upon 
the  Chemical  Processes  of  Digestion."  We  have  not  succeeded 
in  finding  the  words  purporting  to  be  quoted  from  Chittenden, 
and  they  evidently  completely  misrepresent  his  position.  The 
statement  is,  in  fact,  contradictory  to  his  conclusion  (pp.  10 
and  81)  :  "  First,  it  is  plainly  manifest  that  in  the  presence  of 
small  amounts  of  alcohol  (one  half  of  one  per  cent,  of  absolute 
alcohol)  gastric  digestion  may  proceed  as  well,  or  even  better, 

^  Martin,  The  Human  Body.  An  Elementary  Text-Book,  etc.,  N.  Y., 
1894,  pp.  141  £f. 

2  Martin,  The  Human  Body,  N.  Y.,  1890,  pp.  304,  305. 


36  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

than  under  normal  circumstances."  And  on  page  82,  speaking 
of  salivary  digestion,  he  says  :  "  With  active  saliva  not  greatly 
diluted,  the  presence  of  even  five  jjer  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol 
may  lead  to  a  slight  increase  of  digestive  power."  In  his  con- 
cluding paragraph  he  again  cautions  against  drawing  any  such 
sweeping  conclusions  as  that  intimated  in  the  "  School  Physi- 
ology Journal,"  as  follows  :  "■  The  results  recorded  do  not  afford 
data  for  drawing  any  broad  or  general  conclusions  regarding 
the  influence  of  alcoholic  drinks  upon  digestion  or  alimenta- 
tion, since  they  throw  no  light  upon  possible  modifications  of 
secretion,  absorjition,  or  peristalsis." 

With  reference  to  the  second  purported  quotation.  Dr. 
Hodge  is  able  to  deny  that  it  occurs  in  any  of  his  published 
writings,  or  elsewhere,  so  far  as  he  knows.  He  has  certainly 
not  drawn  any  such  sweeping  conclusion  from  his  own  experi- 
ments. 

Another  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  the  method  of  par- 
tial quotation  of  scientific  authorities  is  emjjloyed  to  serve  the 
purposes  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  is  fur- 
nished by  the  use  made  of  Liebig's  statement  as  to  the  nutritive 
value  of  beer  often  quoted  in  the  school  physiology  journals 
and  similar  publications.     It  reads  as  follows  :  — 

"  We  can  prove  with  mathematical  certainty  that  as  much  flour  as 
can  lie  on  the  point  of  a  table  knife  is  more  nutritious  than  eight 
quarts  of  the  best  Bavarian  beer." 

This  statement  occurs  in  a  rare  edition  of  Liebig's  "  Chemical 
Letters,"  published  in  1852,  and  in  no  previous  or  subsequent 
editions.  It  is  well  known  that  Liebig  divided  all  food  sub- 
stances into  two  groups,  viz.,  nitrogenous  or  plastic  foods  and 
non-nitrogenous  or  respiratory  foods.  While  we  have  not  been 
able  to  see  the  edition  in  which  this  statement  occurs,  it  is 
evident  from  what  we  have  learned  of  it  and  from  statements 
in  the  same  connection  in  other  editions,  that  Liebig,  in  mak- 
ing this  statement,  must  have  had  in  mind  the  nitrogenous 
ingredients  of  beer.  To  this  group  he  attached  the  greater 
physiological  importance,  believing  them  to  be  the  sole  source 
of  mechanical  energy  of  the  body,  while  the  latter  group  served 
for  the  production  of  animal  heat.  This  distinction  cannot  be 
maintained  in  the  light  of  later  investigations.     That  Liebig 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  37 

clearly  had  it  in  mind,  however,  in  writing  the  above  paragraph, 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  elsewhere  mentions  specifically 
alcohol,  beer,  and  wine  as  "  respiratory  foods."  It  is,  therefore, 
evident  that  to  make  the  above  statement  accurately  express 
Liebig's  view,  it  should  be  altered  so  as  to  read,  "  contains  more 
nitrogenous  nutriment  than  eight  quarts,"  etc.  Taken  by  itself, 
it  entirely  misrepresents  Liebig's  position. 

E.  O.  Neumann  calls  attention  to  the  above  quotation  from 
Liebig  in  an  article  on  the  "  Significance  of  Alcohol  as  Food  " 
in  the  "  Archiv  fiir  Hygiene,"  1899,  vol.  xxxvi.  pp.  2,  3.  He- 
gives  the  quotation  in  more  detail  as  follows :  — 

"  As  much  flour  as  can  be  held  on  the  point  of  a  knife-blade  is  more 
nutritious  than  five  (Bavarian)  quarts  of  the  best  Bavarian  beer.  A 
man  who  should  be  in  condition  to  drink  daily  five  quarts  of  beer 
would  tbus  have  in  a  year,  under  favorable  circumstances,  exactly  as 
much  nutritive  material  as  in  a  five-pound  loaf  of  bread  or  in  three 
pounds  of  meat." 

A  calculation  based  on  the  combustion  warmth  of  starch 
leads  Neumann  to  the  conclusion  that,  in  this  estimate  of  the 
nutritive  value  of  beer,  Liebig  has  committed  an  error  of  over 
8000  per  cent. 

He  notes,  however,  that,  seven  years  later,  Liebig,  as  the  re- 
sults of  his  experiments  in  metabolism,  reached  the  conclusion 
that  alcohol,  in  its  value  as  a  respiratory  food,  stands  nearest  to 
the  fats. 

IV.    ANSWERS   OF   PUBLIC   SCHOOL-TEACHERS. 

Teachers  possess  a  vantage  ground  in  opportunities  for  ob- 
servation and  experience  in  educational  matters  held  by  no 
other  class  of  the  community.  Certainly  one  of  the  weakest 
features  of  the  jiresent  plan  of  instruction  in  so-called  scien- 
tific temperance  has  consisted  in  almost  total  failure  to  ade- 
quately recognize  this  fact.  And  it  is  safe  to  say  that  ulti- 
mately the  form  which  this  instruction  shall  take  must  of 
necessity  be  determined  by  the  tact  and  wisdom  of  our  teachers. 
It  is  also  safe  to  predict  that  in  so  difficult  and  delicate  a  sub- 
ject there  must  be  the  greatest  possible  freedom  of  method. 
Each  teacher  must  be  allowed  to  work  in  his  own  way  and 
adapt  his  teaching  to  needs  of  different  classes  of  pupils  and 


38  THE  LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

even  to  different  individuals,  if  the  greatest  good  and  the  least 
harm  is  to  result. 

Four  investigations  have  been  made  as  to  methods  and  re- 
sults of  scientific  temperance  instruction  in  the  schools.  Each 
was  made  independently  of  the  others,  by  different  methods,  and 
from  differing  points  of  view.  The  fact  that  they  all  converge 
upon  much  the  same  general  result  is  significant. 

The  first  investigation  was  made  by  George  H.  Martin, 
Agent  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education,  by 
actually  examining  schools  in  which  this  instruction  had  been 
given. 1  Of  the  answers  given  by  the  pupils  to  his  questions 
he  publishes  a  sufficient  number  to  demonstrate  the  futility  of 
present  methods.  Since  yearly  repetition  is  so  prominent  a 
feature  in  the  present  plans  of  study,  possibly  the  most  sug- 
gestive result  is  that  whether  one  year  or  six  years  are  devoted 
to  text-book  work  on  the  subject  makes  practically  no  differ- 
ence with  the  amount  of  a  pupil's  knowledge.  He  says  on  this 
point :  — 

"  Pausing  to  consider  the  schools  where  text-books  are  used  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  time,  the  character  of  the  papers  presented  seems  to 
depend  more  on  the  general  character  of  the  school  and  the  ability  of 
the  pupil  than  on  the  number  of  years  spent  in  the  study  of  alcohol. 

"  If  we  select  a  number  of  schools  in  which  the  subject  is  studied 
from  text-books  one,  two,  three,  or  more  years,  we  shall  find  the  best 
papers  presented  will  cover  essentially  the  same  facts  in  all  the  schools. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  average  papers,  after  one  year's  use  of  the  book, 
may  be  better  than  other  schools  will  furnish  after  five  or  six  years' 
study." 

Mr.  Martin  draws  the  following  conclusions,  which  we  quote 
in  full :  — 

"  1.  The  phrase  '  scientific  temperance  instruction  '  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  this  work  is  a  misnomer.  There  is,  and  in  the  nature  of  things 
can  be,  no  such  instruction.  The  two  essential  elements  of  scientific 
study  —  observation  and  inference  —  are  necessarily  wanting  ;  neither 
the  pupil  nor  the  teacher  can  have  first-hand  information. 

"  2.  That  the  outcome  in  accurate  knowledge  resulting  from  much 
of  the  work  done  is  meagre  and  out  of  proportion  to  the  time  spent 
upon  it. 

'  George  H.  Martin,  "  Physiology  and  Hygiene,"  Massachusetts  State 
Board  of  Education,  Fifty-fifth  Annual  Report,  1890-91,  pp.  312-326. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  39 

"  3.  That  many  false  impressions  are  left  in  the  minds  of  the  stu- 
dents. 

"  4.  That  physiological  details  are  not  suited  to  young  children. 

"  5.  That  however  defective  the  instruction  may  he,  the  sentiment 
of  the  school  is  sound,  —  the  conviction  that  alcohol  and  tobacco  are 
bad  things  to  use  seems  universal. 

"  6.  That  the  strength  of  this  sentiment  does  not  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  information  acquired. 

"  7.  That  where  exaggerated  notions  of  the  effects  of  stimulants 
have  been  acquired,  there  is  danger  of  a  reaction  of  sentiment  in  the 
light  of  after-knowledge." 

Mr.  Martin  also  offers  the  following  suggestions  :  — 

"1.  That  committees  and  superintendents  give  more  careful  atten- 
tion to  work  in  this  department,  prescribing  definitely  its  limits,  and 
requiring  the  prescribed  work  to  be  done  as  well  as  work  in  other  sub- 
jects, using  the  same  means  for  judging  its  progress  and  results. 

2.  That  teachers  who  are  called  upon  to  give  oral  instruction  pre- 
pare themselves  with  great  care  for  the  exercise,  and  see  that  their 
statements  are  true,  and  by  frequent  tests,  oral  and  written,  ascertain 
that  their  teaching  is  intelligently  comprehended  by  aU  the  pupils. 

"  3.  That,  when  no  text-book  is  used  in  any  grade,  the  teachers  pre- 
pare for  the  highest  classes  a  summary  of  the  effects  of  stimulants  and 
narcotics  upon  the  different  systems  of  the  body,  aiming  at  clearness 
of  statement  and  avoiding  exaggeration. 

"  4.  That  the  use  of  text-books  be  limited  to  the  older  pupils. 

"  5.  That  so  much  of  explanation  accompany  the  use  of  the  book  as 
may  be  necessary  to  guard  against  error,  and  insure  exact  knowledge. 

"  6.  That,  as  far  as  possible,  technicalities  be  avoided. 

"  7.  That  the  pupils  have  frequent  opportunity  to  express  their  know- 
ledge orally  and  in  writing. 

"  8.  That  throughout  the  course  the  moral  and  social  effects  of  the 
use  of  intoxicants  be  made  prominent,  and  abstinence  be  inculcated 
from  higher  grounds  than  such  as  concern  only  the  body." 

Dr.  G.  W.  Fitz  next  investigated  the  condition  of  "  scientific 
temperance  instruction  "  in  Massachusetts  with  a  view  to  as- 
certain what  difficulties  attached  to  the  present  plan  and  what 
changes  in  legislation  might  be  accejjtable  to  teachers.  Letters 
of  inquiry  were  sent  to  superintendents  and  principals  through- 
out the  State.  Eighty-three  (83)  cities  and  towns  were  thus 
heard  from.  These  represented  113,000  children  and  about 
4000  teachers.     These  figures  cover  more  than  one  quarter  of 


40  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

the  total  mimbei-  of  children  (409,000),  and  of  teachers  (12,- 
000),  in  the  State. 

Replies  to  some  of  these  questions  Dr.  Fitz  has  tabulated  as 
follows :  — 

What  are  the  results  of  this  (temperance)  instruction  ? 

Excellent,  if  well  taught 2  per  cent. 

Good 11       " 

Medium 15       " 

Little 14       " 

None 55       " 

Bad 3       " 

This  gives  28  per  cent,  who  think  the  results  are  excellent, 
medium,  or  good,  and  72  per  cent,  who  consider  them  little, 
none,  or  bad. 

To  the  question  "  What  value  has  the  instruction  in  mental 
and  moral  discipline  ?  "  the  answers  are  :  — 

Great 1  per  cent. 

Good 16       « 

As  much  as  other  subjects 24       " 

Little 31       " 

None 28       " 

A  somewhat  larger  percentage  are  thus  seen  to  look  with 
some  favor  u2)on  the  disciplinary  value  of  this  instruction,  and 
still  a  considerable  majority,  59  per  cent.,  consider  it  to  possess 
little  or  none. 

A  continuation  of  Dr.  Fitz's  investigation  consisted  in  gather- 
ing (1898-99)  the  votes  of  288-4  Massachusetts  teachers  upon 
the  question  whether  it  was  desirable  to  have  more  stringent 
legislation  (represented  in  the  Morgan-Hunt  bill.  Senate,  41) 
or  less  exacting  laws  (as  embodied  in  the  Myers  bill,  House, 
817).  Copies  of  both  bills  were  distributed  with  all  the  letters 
of  inquii-y,  and  are  to  be  found  in  Appendix  II.  The  result  of 
this  canvass,  with  the  issue  very  definitely  stated,  showed  98.2 
per  cent,  of  the  teachers  in  favor  of  the  Myers  bill.  Only  1.8 
per  cent,  favored  the  Morgan-Hunt  bill.  A  modification  of  these 
bills  rendered  a  second  canvass  necessary,  but  the  opinion  of 
the  teachers  on  the  bills  in  the  new  form  remained  unchanged.^ 

1  For  the  nature  of  these  modifications,  see  letter  of  Dr.  G.  W.  Fitz,  Sec- 
cretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society  Committee,  inclosing  Mrs. 
Hunt's  modified  bill,  Appendix  II.,  p.  134. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  41 

A  third  investigation  was  undertaken  by  Mr.  Walter  A. 
Wyckoff  and  the  result  presented  to  the  Committee  of  Fifty  by 
Professor  Sloane.  In  this  case  an  attempt  was  made  to  obtain 
the  expert  opinion  of  representative  teachers  in  forty-eight  States 
and  Territories  and  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  As  a  report 
upon  this  investigation  will  naturally  form  a  part  of  the  report 
of  the  Ethical  Committee,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say  in  this  con- 
nection that  the  results  agree  with  those  above  presented  in  find- 
ing overwhelming  majorities  of  the  teachers  opposed  to  exacting 
legislation  upon  this  subject,  while  practically  all  are  agreed 
that  the  subject  ought  to  receive  a  reasonable  amount  of  atten- 
tion in  connection  with  courses  in  physiology  and  hygiene. 

Our  own  study  of  the  subject  consisted  in  distributing  500 
slips  containing  the  questions  given  below  among  teachers. 
About  200  each  were  distributed  in  New  York  and  Massachu- 
setts and  100  in  Wisconsin.  New  York  has  the  very  exacting 
Ainsworth  law,  while  Wisconsin  and  Massachusetts  have  mod- 
erate laws,  though  in  Massachusetts  it  has  been  very  strictly 
interpreted. 

The  following  is  a  tabulation  of  the  questions  with  all  the 
answers  received. 

Do  you  approve  the  teaching  of  alcohol  physiology  as  pro- 
moted by  the  department  of  scientific  temperance  instruction  of 
the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  ? 

Mass.  :  Yes,  26.     N.  Y. :  Yes,  16.     Wis.  :  Yes,  12.     Totals  :  Yes,    54. 
Mass. :  No,   56.     N.  Y. :  No,  45.    Wis.  :  No,    18.     Totals  :  No,  119. 

Do  you  favor  such  instruction  being  made  compulsory  by 
state  law? 

Mass.  :  Yes,  24.     N.  Y.  :  Yes,  22.     Wis.  :  Yes,  11.     Totals  :  Yes,    57. 
Mass.  :  No,   42.     N.  Y.  :  No,   43.     Wis.  :  No,    19.     Totals  :  No,    104. 

What  do  you  think  of  the  "  approved  and  indorsed  "  school 
physiologies  ? 

Mass.  :  Good,  19.     N.  Y.  :  Good,  15.     Wis.  :  Good,  13.     Total  :  Good,  47. 
Mass.  :  Bad,    28.     N.  Y.  :  Bad,    40.     Wis. :  Bad,    18.     Total :  Bad,    86. 

In  your  opinion,  are  results  of  the  instruction  now  given 
good  or  bad  ? 

Mass.  :  Good,  19.     N.  Y.  :  Good,  25.     Wis.  :  Good,  15.     Total  :  Good,  69. 
Mass. :  Bad,    34.     N.  Y. :  Bad,    35.     Wis.  :  Bad,    15.     Total :  Bad,    84. 


42  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Passing  by  answers  to  the  first  two  questions,  we  will  quote 
a  few  replies  to  the  third  which  give  the  opinions  of  teachers  as 
to  the  approved  text-books. 

What  do  you  think  of  the  "  approved  and  indorsed "  school 
physiologies  ? 

ANSWERS   FROM   MASSACHUSETTS. 
(Law  liberal,  but  strictly  interpreted.) 

1.  Not  well  adapted  to  work  among  the  young  children. 

2.  They  are  misleading,  to  say  the  least. 

3.  I  disapprove  of  those  I  have  examined.  They  seem  often  to  be 
prejudiced  and  untrue. 

4.  I  think  them  generally  untruthfiU. 

5.  I  think  they  contain  many  errors  and  false  statements. 

6.  Emphasizing  the  evil  effects  is  apt  to  fill  the  child's  mind  with 
such  notions.  A  great  many  teachers  with  whom  I  have  talked  feel 
that  better  results  could  be  obtained  by  teaching  that  emphasizes  the 
normal  rather  than  the  abnormal. 

ANSVTERS    FROM    WISCONSIN   TEACHERS. 
(Law  lenient.) 

1.  They  are  ill  balanced  and  often  strongly  prejudiced  and  false  to 
fact. 

2.  I  think  they  are  too  strongly  colored  with  preaching. 

3.  I  think  that  the  temperance  matter  is  overdone,  so  that  the  sub- 
ject-matter is  likely  to  be  neglected. 

4.  The  printing,  binding,  and  cuts  are  excellent.  Most  of  the  ma- 
terial is  good.  If  not  more  than  five  per  cent,  of  the  alcohol  para- 
graphs were  introduced,  —  good. 

5.  They  appear  to  be  written  to  be  "  approved  and  indorsed,"  —  to 
sell,  and  are  really  inferior  books. 

6.  They  are,  as  a  whole,  weak  books  "  doctored,"  and  made  to 
pander  to  the  demands  of  this  society. 

7.  I  think  they  have  been  made  to  sell,  and  that  most  of  them  are 
incorrect  in  statement  and  unscientific  in  treatment. 

ANSWERS   FROM    NEW   YORK   TEACHERS. 
(Law  very  stringent.) 

1.  Most  of  them  are  pernicious  scientifically  and  ethically. 

2.  I  find  that  according  to  our  best  authority,  the  successful  phy- 
sician, they  are  inaccurate  and  unscientific. 

3.  Tliey  are  very  much  exaggerated. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  43 

4.  They  are  worse  than  useless.  They  defeat  the  very  object  for 
which  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  labors.  They  en- 
tirely suppress  the  few  beneficial  effects  of  alcohol  and  unduly  exag- 
gerate the  evil  effects.  All  youtlis  pass  through  an  age  of  unbelief,  of 
cynicism,  of  agnosticism.  This  age  generally  comes  during  the  latter 
part  of  tiie  high  school  course.  When  they  learn  from  authoritative 
sources  of  the  benefits  of  alcohol,  the  reaction  is  marked.  They  im- 
mediately question  the  truth  of  the  evils  of  alcohol,  and  term  what  the 
books  teach  "a  lie."     Such  has  been  my  experience. 

5.  In  many  cases  they  do  not  stand  the  search-light  of  scientific 
truth,  besides  containing  disgusting  details. 

6.  I  should  judge  many  of  them  to  be  extravagantly  inaccurate  as 
regards  alcohol,  according  to  the  teachings  of  the  University  of . 

7.  So  far  as  I  have  examined  them,  I  believe  them  to  be  unscien- 
tific and  in  some  instances  ridiculous. 

8.  They  are  extreme,  hence  do  not  serve  the  purpose  intended. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  quote  from  the  briefer  answers,  "  Poor," 
"  Bad,"  "  Good,"  which  constitute  the  majority  of  the  returns; 
for  they  tell  us  no  more  than  appears  in  the  table.  Our  re- 
turns, on  the  whole,  tend  to  bear  out  Dr.  Jordan's  statement, 
"  Just  in  proportion  to  his  ignorance  of  the  subject  will  be  the 
teacher's  willingness  to  undertake  the  teaching  of  the  New 
York  law,"  ^  that  is,  the  teachers  who  give  evidence  of  hav- 
ing reasoned  and  observed  seem  to  have  reached  conclusions 
adverse  to  the  "  approved  "  text-books. 

The  final  question  as  to  results  is  naturally  most  important. 
From  letters  of  the  Department  of  Scientific  Temperance  In- 
struction, we  learn  that  it  is  considered  too  early  to  expect 
results.  This  is  remarkable,  since,  at  the  time  of  our  inquiry, 
the  law  had  been  in  operation  in  some  States  as  long  as  fifteen 
years.  Dr.  Jordan  has  answered  the  question  in  the  following 
emphatic  manner  :  ^  — 

"  The  whole  '  scientific  temperance  '  movement  is  opposed  to  the 
movement  for  good  schools  through  the  choice  of  good  teachers.  It 
has  been  judged  thus  far  mainly  by  its  motives,  which  are  good.  It 
will  come  to  be  judged  by  its  results,  and  these  are  bad." 

In  addition  to  such  simple  answers  as  are  tabulated  above, 

1  David  Starr  Jordan,  "  Scientific  Temperance,"  Appleton's  Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly,  January,  1896,  p.  352. 
^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  354. 


44  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

we  may  quote  a  few  of  the  New  York  re]ilies  which  show  the 
results  of  observation,  and  shed  additional  light  on  the  subject. 

ANSWERS    OF   NEW    YORK   TEACHERS   AS    TO    RESULTS   OF  SCIENTIFIC 
TEMPERANCE   INSTRUCTION. 

1.  I  have  seen  evil  results. 

2.  Good,  when  untrammeled  ;  a  failure,  when  hampered. 

3.  In  my  own  judgment  the  effects  of  the  teaching  have  been  bad, 
for  the  reason  that  the  manner  in  which  the  subject  is  treated  kills  the 
interest  of  botli  teacher  and  pupil  in  a  science  that  is  naturally  inter- 
esting. 

4.  Bad,  generally,  in  that  the  pupil  often  sees  that  the  statements 
of  the  book  are  not  literally  in  accord  with  his  daily  experience  (and 
perhaps  home  training),  causing  him  to  lose  respect  for  the  books  and 
impairing  the  influence  of  the  teacher. 

5.  Bad,  especially  where  the  law  is  followed  to  the  letter. 

6.  If  the  teacher  is  honest  enough  to  teach  the  beneficial  effects  of 
alcohol,  the  pupil  will  beUeve  the  evil  effects ;  then,  and  only  then,  are 
the  results  good. 

7.  The  effect  on  the  pupils  seems  to  be  that  of  regarding  any  men- 
tion of  alcohol  and  its  uses  as  a  subject  of  ridicule. 

8.  Where  a  morally  well-balanced  instructor  is  allowed  to  use  his 
discretion  as  to  what  to  teach,  —  good. 

CONCLUSION. 
It  is  thus  apparent  that  under  the  name  of  "  Scientific  Tem- 
perance Instruction  "  there  has  been  grafted  upon  the  public 
school  system  of  nearly  all  our  States  an  educational  scheme 
relating  to  alcohol  which  is  neither  scientific,  nor  temperate, 
nor  instructive.  Failing  to  observe  the  distinction  between  the 
diametrically  opposite  conceptions  of  "  use  "  and  "  abuse,"  some 
of  its  advocates  have  not  hesitated  to  teach  our  children  that 
the  terrible  results  of  a  prolonged  abuse  of  alcohol  may  be  ex- 
pected to  follow  any  departure  from  the  strict  rules  of  total 
abstinence.  The  success  which  has  attended  the  efforts  of  the 
Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  to  secure  the  desired 
legislation  may  be  readily  explained  by  the  sympathy  sure  to 
be  felt  by  all  intelligent  people  for  any  sincere  attempt  to  com- 
bat one  of  the  most  gigantic  evils  of  modern  times.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  abuse  of  alcohol  is  a  threat  to  our  civili- 
zation, and  any  honest  effort  to  diminish  its  consumption  is 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  45 

certain  to  be  welcomed  without  any  very  critical  examination 
of  the  methods  employed.  That  the  originators  of  this  educa- 
tional scheme  were  honest  in  their  intentions  there  is  no  reason 
to  doubt,  but  they  have  violated  sound  principles  of  pedagogy 
in  forcing  subjects  upon  the  attention  of  children  at  an  age 
when  their  minds  cannot  possibly  be  adapted  to  comprehend 
them,  and  have  shown  themselves  absolutely  indifferent  to  the 
demoralization  of  our  educational  system  resulting  from  forcing 
teachers  to  give  instruction  in  a  way  which  their  experience 
has  shown  them  to  be  ill  adapted  to  accomplish  the  ends  in 
view,  and  from  compelling  children  to  memorize  statements 
sure  to  be  contradicted  by  the  experience  of  their  later  lives. 

That  the  removal  of  this  educational  excrescence  will  be  no 
easy  task  is  evident  from  the  result  of  the  attempt  in  this  direc- 
tion made  in  Massachusetts  during  the  session  of  the  legislature 
in  1899,  and  described  on  p.  24-26  of  this  report.  When  it  is 
remembered  that  the  bill  introduced  by  the  Woman's  Christian 
Temperance  Union  related  to  the  teaching  of  a  physiological 
subject  in  our  public  schools,  the  almost  unanimous  opposition 
of  both  the  medical  and  the  teaching  professions  is  a  circum- 
stance of  the  greatest  significance.  The  fact  that  after  a  series 
of  hearings  the  Committee  on  Education  made  a  report  leaving 
the  whole  subject  in  statu  quo  shows  that  a  prolonged  struggle 
will  be  necessary  to  free  our  public  school  system  from  the  incu- 
bus which  rests  upon  it.  In  this  struggle  the  Committee  of 
Fifty  should  speak  with  no  uncertain  voice. 


APPENDIX  TO  REPORT  ON  THE  PRESENT  INSTRUCTION 
ON  THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ACTION  OF  ALCOHOL. 

I. 

In  this  appendix  will  be  found,  alphabetically  arranged  in 
groups,  specimens  of  letters  from  American  and  foreign  physi- 
ologists, obtained  partly  in  answer  to  the  request  printed  on 
p.  14  of  the  committee's  report  and  partly  in  response  to  a 
special  request  directed  to  certain  teachers  of  physiology  who 
either  were  not  present  at  the  physiological  congress  of  1898,  or 
who  were  unwilling  to  sign  the  statement  there  presented. 

AMERICAN   AUTHORITIES. 

Dr.  H.  G.  Beyer U.  S.  N. 

Prof.  H.  P.  Bowditcli Boston. 

Prof.  R.  H.  Chittenden •     .  New  Haven. 

Dr.  F.  W.  Ellis Monson,  Mass 

Dr.  G.  W.  Fitz Boston. 

Prof.  Theo.  Hough Boston. 

Prof.  W.  H.  Howell Baltimore. 

Dr.  P.  A.  Levene New  York. 

Prof.  L.  B.  Mendel New  Haven. 

Prof.  H.  Sewall Denver. 

Prof.  G.  N.  Stewart Cleveland. 

Dr.  Henry  G.  Beyer,  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  October  9,  1897. 

In  my  experiments  on  the  direct  action  of  certain  drugs  on 
the  heart  and  blood  vessels,  made  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, ten  years  ago,  and,  before  mastering  the  various  steps 
necessary  in  the  successful  operation  for  the  isolation  of  the 
dog's  heart,  according  to  Martin's  method,  I  made  a  few 
experiments  with  alcoholized  blood  on  the  heart  and  blood 
vessels. 

Assuming  that  the  physiological  organs,  under  experimenta- 
tion, were  chiefly  muscular,  and,  by  carefully  observing  the 
doses,  I  should  say  positively  that  the  first  effect  of  alcohol 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  47 

stimulates,  the  next  effect  of  alcohol  paralyzes  the  muscular 
structures  involved.  The  stimulating  effect,  however,  is  so 
slight  and  temporary  that  it  is  far  outweighed  by  its  subse- 
quent paralyzing  effect :  the  heart  is  arrested  in  diastole  and 
the  blood  vessels  become  dilated  (when  isolated  from  the  central 
nervous  system)  beyond  recovery,  when  the  doses  were  large 
enough  and  continued  long  enough.  The  dilatation  of  the 
blood  vessels  is  especially  marked  in  the  frog's  web  and  can  be 
directly  measured  under  the  microscope,  when  alcohol  is  used 
in  proper  dilution  and  injected  into  the  lymph  sac  with  normal 
salt  solution. 

The  fact  that  alcohol  at  first  stimulates  and  then  paralyzes, 
in  other  words,  first  increases,  then  decreases,  blood  pressure, 
or  first  causes  temporary  contraction  and  then  a  more  prolonged 
relaxation  of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels, 
explains  many  of  the  phenomena  in  all  the  other  organs,  in 
which  blood  vessels  are  found  and  of  which  the  temporarily  in- 
creased mental  activity  is  perhaps  the  more  important. 

As  regards  the  pharmacological  side  of  the  question  of  the 
administration  of  alcohol,  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  pathological 
conditions  in  which  the  administration  of  alcohol  is  directly  in- 
dicated, and  in  which,  moreover,  no  remedy  might  answer  as 
well  as  alcohol.  In  a  perfectly  normal  animal  organism,  how- 
ever, I  cannot  understand  any  good  effects  pi-oducible  by 
alcohol. 

In  my  opinion,  alcohol  is  7iot  a  food,  nor  even  a  condiment. 
It  is  a  stimulant  of  value  only  in  pathological  conditions,  and 
should  be  used,  therefore,  as  a  remedy  only. 

The  introduction  of  alcohol  physiology  into  the  elementary 
school  courses  is,  in  my  opinion,  an  example  of  mistaken  public 
benevolence  which  has  nothing  but  the  good  motives  of  the 
originators  to  commend  it,  and  which  illustrates  the  dangers  of 
people  meddling  with  things  they  do  not  understand. 

The  most  perfectly  cooked  meal,  on  a  most  properly  ap- 
pointed dining-room  table,  served  by  the  best  dressed  pro- 
fessional waiters,  while  most  attractive  and  beneficial  for 
grown  people,  would  be  of  no 'use  for  the  starving  suckling. 

The  best  established  and  most  important  biological  facts 
cannot  be    comprehended   by   the    infant  or   child-mind,  nor 


48  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

properly  assimilated,  any  more  than  a  beefsteak  can  be  di- 
gested by  a  suckling  infant.  I  place  the  lowest  limit  of  age 
for  the  beginning  of  the  study  of  biology  at  fourteen  years  and 
that  of  elementary  physiology  at  sixteen  years.  I  agree  per- 
fectly with  the  idea  of  the  promoters  of  alcohol  instruction 
that  a  knowledge  of  the  pernicious  effects  of  alcohol  can  only 
be  obtained  and  thoroughly  comprehended  when  engrafted 
upon  a  brain  already  cultured  with  a  sound  knowledge  of  phy- 
siology. 

The  best  that  can  be  done  in  the  primary  and  grammar  de- 
partments is  to  warn  children  of  the  dangers  of  alcohol  as  we 
warn  them  of  bad  company,  of  swearing,  of  telling  lies,  or  of 
the  dangers  of  mad  dogs,  etc.  In  other  words,  teachers  might 
begin  by  working  on  their  sentiments  in  the  absence  of  their 
understanding,  but  great  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  all  un- 
truths and  exaggerations  with  regard  to  alcohol  and  its  effects. 
Nothing  which  could  not  later  on  be  verified  by  the  children 
themselves  should  ever  jiass  a  teacher's  lips. 

I  have  examined  many  of  the  so-called  physiologies  written 
especi-ally  for  alcohol  instruction,  and  can  approve  of  none. 
Martin's  is,  however,  the  best  among  them. 

Professor  H.  P.  Bowditch,  Boston,  September  29,  1897. 

In  reply  to  your  letter  of  September  24  I  would  say  that  I 
have  always  taught  that  alcohol,  since  it  is,  in  moderate  doses, 
almost  wholly  used  up  in  the  body,  must  be  regarded  as  a  force 
producer  or  a  food  in  the  same  sense  that  starch  and  sugar  are 
foods,  but  with  this  important  difference,  that,  while  starch  and 
sugar  can  be  ingested  in  amounts  limited  only  by  the  power  of 
the  system  to  digest  and  absorb,  alcohol,  owing  to  its  peculiar 
action  upon  the  nervous  system,  cannot  in  health  be  taken  in 
an  amount  sufficient  to  render  its  nutritive  value  of  any  impor- 
tance. In  certain  pathological  conditions,  however,  this  action 
upon  the  nervous  system  seems  to  be  held  in  abeyance,  and  we 
accordingly  find  cases  of  convalescence  from  exhausting  dis- 
eases in  which  the  system  seems  to  tolerate  large  quantities  of 
alcohol  and  to  be  not  only  stimulated  but  actually  nourished 
by  it. 

A  most  remarkable  case  of  this  sort  is  reported  by  Dr.  S.  L. 
Abbot  of  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital.     It  is  that  of  a 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  49 

young  woman  suffering  from  double  pneumonia  who  refused  to 
take  food  and  who  seemed  at  the  point  of  death.  A  teaspoon- 
ful  of  brandy  and  water,  forced  between  her  teeth,  seemed  to 
produce  a  beneficial  effect,  and  orders  were  given  to  let  her 
have  all  the  brandy  she  would  take.  For  the  next  seven  days 
she  lived  exclusively  on  brandy  and  whiskey,  consuming  in  all 
over  a  gallon  of  distilled  liquor  without  showing  any  signs  of 
stimulation.  As  she  received  no  other  food  the  conclusion  that 
she  was  nourished  by  the  alcohol  seems  almost  irresistible.  She 
finally  made  a  good  recovery. 

The  action  of  the  drug  upon  the  nervous  system  is  mainly 
that  of  a  narcotic  poison.  The  initial  period  of  stimulation  is 
perhaps  a  reflex  phenomenon  due  to  the  contact  of  the  drug 
with  the  mucous  membrane  of  tlie  alimentary  canal,  though  the 
possibility  of  a  direct  stimulation  of  the  tissues  by  the  alcohol 
in  the  circulating  blood  cannot  be  excluded. 

Professor  R.  H.  Chittenden,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  October  5,  1897. 
Your  series  of  questions  pertaining  to  alcohol  remind  me  of 
the  pamphlets  we  are  wont  to  receive  from  Washington  on  edu- 
cational matters,  in  which  the  list  of  questions  is  so  broad  as 
to  be  appalling.  I  will  do  my  best,  however,  to  answer  a  few 
of  the  questions  contained  in  your  letter. 

First :  I  believe  that  we  have  abundant  evidence  that  alcohol 
has  a  certain  food  value ;  that  when  fed  under  suitable  condi- 
tions, i.  e.,  in  not  too  large  amounts  at  one  time,  it  is  oxidized 
in  the  body,  playing  the  part  of  a  non-nitrogenous  food.  Like 
the  latter  it  is  capable  of  diminishing  somewhat  the  amount  of 
proteid  food  required  by  the  body.  Owing  to  its  peculiar 
nature,  however,  i.  e.,  its  ready  absorbability,  it  is  rapidly 
eliminated  from  the  body  when  taken  in  large  doses,  and  as  a 
result  only  a  portion  of  the  alcohol  so  ingested  can  be  utilized. 
In  such  cases  the  food  value  which  alcohol  possesses  is  lost 
sight  of  in  its  more  pronounced  action  as  a  stimulant.  There 
is,  I  think,  no  doubt  that  this  energy  which  comes  from  the 
oxidation  of  alcohol  in  the  body  can  be  utilized  as  a  source  of 
work,  although  it  is  doubtful  if  alcohol  can  be  considered  of 
great  value  in  this  direction  since  its  stimulating  action  is  so 
much  more  marked.  Further,  when  taken  in  small  doses  heat 
unquestionably  results  from  its  oxidation,  although  at  the  same 


50  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

time  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  there  may  be  an  increased  loss 
of  heat  from  the  action  of  alcohol  upon  the  cutaneous  blood 
vessels.  As  regards  its  action  upon  metabolism,  I  believe  that 
much  dejjends  upon  the  dosage  and  the  personal  idiosyncrasies 
of  the  individual,  and  that  these  two  factors  are  in  great  part 
responsible  for  the  ajjparent  divergence  in  results  attained  by 
different  investigators.  That  as  a  food  it  differs  from  oi-dinary 
non-nitrogenous  food  is  shown  by  its  specific  influence  in  many 
cases,  as  upon  the  production  and  excretion  of  uric  acid. 

Alcohol  has  a  certain  positive  influence  upon  digestive  action. 
In  small  quantities  it  increases  slightly  the  digestive  power  of 
saliva  and  of  gastric  juice,  or,  to  be  more  exact,  it  may  do  so  if 
the  digestive  power  of  the  secretions  is  uj)  to  normal.  With 
larger  quantities  of  alcohol  the  digestive  power  of  saliva,  gas- 
tric juice,  and  pancreatic  juice  is  greatly  inhibited,  the  extent 
of  inhibition  depending  upon  the  relative  strength  of  the  secre- 
tion and  the  proportion  of  alcohol  present.  How  far  this  inhib- 
itory action  is  counteracted  by  increased  secretion  under  the 
influence  of  alcohol  I  do  not  think  we  know  at  present.  Alco- 
hol certainly  does  increase  the  rate  of  secretion  of  gastric  juice, 
at  least  in  the  dog,  and  it  also  has  a  marked  influence  in  in- 
creasing the  rate  of  absorption  from  the  stomach  of  various  dif- 
fusible substances,  such  as  peptone,  sugar,  salts,  etc.  I  believe 
we  can  safely  say  that  alcohol  in  small  doses  is  frequently  use- 
ful as  an  aid  to  digestion,  especially  in  certain  semi-abnormal 
conditions. 

I  also  think  we  are  warranted  in  the  general  statement  that 
strictly  moderate  doses  of  alcohol,  while  not  needed  by  the 
healthy  individual,  are  not  liarmful  under  ordinary  conditions 
of  life,  and  that  small  doses  may  even  prove  beneficial,  at  least 
under  some  conditions.  Taken  in  large  doses  on  the  other 
hand,  i.  e.,  in  excess,  intoxication  and  even  death  may  result,  if 
the  dosage  is  sufficiently  large.  Further,  the  long-continued 
use  of  large  quantities  of  alcohol  may  without  question  produce 
marked  lesions  of  the  stomach,  liver,  blood  vessels,  brain, 
nerves,  etc.,  the  intensity  of  action  depending  much  upon  the 
quantities  used  and  the  personality  of  the  individual. 

As  a  stimulant,  alcohol  is  without  doubt  of  great  value  in 
many  acute  diseases  running  a  limited  course  where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  recourse  to  something  to  keep  up  the  patients' 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  51 

strength  until  the  crisis  of  the  disease  is  past,  but  unquestion- 
ably alcohol  acts  differently  with  different  individuals.  As 
Lauder-Brunton  says,  observation  alone  can  tell  whether  the 
administration  of  alcohol  —  in  fevers,  for  example  —  will  be 
advantageous  or  not,  but  in  many  cases  alcohol  is  certainly 
exceedingly  useful  both  as  a  cardiac  and  a  general  stimulant. 

Second  :  In  my  judgment  the  introduction  of  "  alcohol  physio- 
logy "  into  elementary  public  schools  is  absolutely  useless.  The 
children  are  not  sufficiently  advanced  to  profit  by  the  instruc- 
tion given,  even  if  the  latter  is  good.  There  is  no  propriety  in 
teaching  any  form  of  physiology  before  the  child  has  acquired 
some  knowledge  of  chemistry  and  physics.  To  teach  physiology 
to  children  who  have  not  had  this  preliminary  training  is  simply 
to  present  them  with  a  collection  of  isolated  statements  which 
convey  little  or  no  meaning  to  their  minds.  They  may  memo- 
rize them,  it  is  true,  but  lasting  impressions  wiU  hardly  be 
made. 

I  have  very  little  definite  knowledge  of  the  various  physio- 
logies used  in  the  schools ;  two  or  three  that  I  have  seen  have 
not  impressed  me  favorably.  One  in  particular  contained  sev- 
eral statements  regarding  the  action  of  alcohol  in  producing 
diseases,  such  as  cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  which  I  fancy  would  be 
hardly  intelligible  to  the  average  child. 

Dr.  F.  W.  Ellis,  Monson.  Mass.,  October  12,  1897. 

I  fear  that  I  cannot  offer  anything  authoritative  concerning 
the  physiological  effects  of  alcohol.  Some  years  ago  I  made 
quite  a  careful  stiidy  of  the  subject,  but  at  present  I  am  not 
abreast  of  the  newest  work  in  this  line. 

I  am  a  believer  in  the  therapeutic  value  of  alcohol,  although 
its  use  as  a  medicine  is  undoubtedly  abused  at  times. 

I  believe  that  it  is  nonsense  to  attempt  to  teach  the  physiology 
of  alcohol  in  the  public  schools.  I  believe  that  the  temperance 
cause  is  likely  to  be  injured  rather  than  advanced  by  such  in- 
struction. I  have  not  examined  carefully  any  of  the  approved 
temperance  physiologies,  but  I  am  confident  that  the  time  to 
write  such  books  has  not  yet  arrived.  Until  scientists  are 
agreed  as  to  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  animal  functions,  and 
until  the  subject  has  been  clearly  worked  out  by  unprejudiced 
investigators,  I  think  it  will  be  a  waste  of  time  to  endeavor  to 


62  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

enlighten  children  in  those  matters.  Few,  if  any,  teachers  in 
the  public  schools  are  qualified  to  teach  any  branch  of  physio- 
logy as  it  should  be.  I  am  certain  that  the  average  teacher  will 
make  a  sad  mess  in  attempting  to  impart  instruction  in  the  ob- 
scure subject  of  the  physiology  of  alcohol. 

The  temperance  question,  in  its  essence,  is  a  moral  and  not  a 
physiological  question.  I  believe  that  any  attempt  to  teach  the 
physiology  of  alcohol  in  elementary  schools  is  likely  to  induce 
the  pupil  to  lose  sight  of  this  essential  fact. 

Dr.  G.  W.  FiTZ,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  October  30,  1897. 

As  to  the  inquiries  in  your  letter  of  September  28,  I  cannot 
now  reply  in  full.  Concerning  the  body  of  effects  relating  to 
alcohol  essential  to  the  education  of  medical  and  university 
students,  I  should  consider  it  sufficiently  well  established  that 
the  use  of  alcohol  as  a  beverage  was  harmful  and  that  it  is  wiser 
for  any  one  to  avoid  its  habitual  use.  I  doubt  if  the  occasional 
use  of  moderate  amounts  has  any  particular  effect,  that  is, 
amounts  entirely  physiological,  showing  no  immediate  toxic 
effect. 

As  to  the  value  of  alcohol  as  a  food  I  believe  that  in  certain 
conditions  it  has  a  distinct  food  value,  but  its  use  should  be 
limited  to  a  physician's  direction.  As  a  medicine  I  believe  it 
has  undoubted  value.  As  a  condiment  for  sauces  and  similar 
articles  of  food,  I  believe  it  is  a  perfectly  legitimate  use,  and  if 
used  in  moderate  amounts  I  see  no  reason  why  it  should  create 
an  appetite  for  liquor ;  I  have  no  personal  knowledge  of  any 
case  where  such  has  arisen.  Its  influence  upon  tissues,  organs, 
and  physiological  processes  I  have  no  time  to  go  into.  I  have 
not  the  time  to  go  into  the  list  of  points  claimed  by  the  Scien- 
tific Temperance  people  which  are  not  sufficiently  well  proven 
to  form  part  of  our  teaching  material.  "  They  are  too  numer- 
ous to  mention." 

I  do  not  believe  that  the  study  of  the  physiology  of  alcohol 
should  be  introduced  into  any  course  below  the  high  school.  I 
do  not  believe  it  should  be  made  compulsory  by  state  law.  So 
far  as  I  have  been  able  to  observe  the  results  of  the  instruction 
in  physiology  of  alcohol,  I  believe  that  it  is  bad  rather  than 
good.     The   arguments   against  such   teaching  are  (first)  the 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  53 

children  have  no  basis  in  chemistry  and  especially  physiology 
for  any  study  of  the  physiology  of  alcohol :  therefore  at  once  it 
has  no  educational  value,  as  it  is  beyond  their  comprehension, 
so  as  a  "  scientific  study  "  it  is  a  misnomer  and  absolutely  value- 
less. I  believe  that  such  teaching  is  unpedagogical  and  dis- 
tinctly bad  for  all  the  other  studies,  as  it  gives  children  the  idea 
that  they  can  study  and  reason  about  things  which  are  entirely 
beyond  their  comprehension.  Again,  this  study  suggests  possi- 
bilities of  experiment  with  alcohol  which  may  result  in  just  what 
it  is  hoped  to  prevent.  I  believe  that  the  strongest  arguments 
should  be  the  positive  ones,  that  no  one  can  afford  to  do  any- 
thing that  will  not  further  his  best  life.  Children  can  compre- 
hend the  social  effects  of  the  use  of  alcohol,  the  economic  and 
to  a  certain  extent  the  hygienic  aspects  of  its  use,  and  the  in- 
fluences of  such  observation  and  study  have  far  stronger  effect 
in  shaping  their  lives  than  any  amount  of  scientific  study. 
When  the  child  is  taught  that  the  use  of  alcohol  as  a  beverage 
may  lead  to  coarseness,  brutality,  loss  of  control,  bring  about 
unhappiness  to  the  family,  make  the  individual  who  might 
otherwise  be  helpful  and  kind  a  selfish  brute  who  may  do  injury, 
even  murder,  and  that  the  individual  who  does  not  use  alcohol 
is  brighter,  happier,  able  to  do  more  work  and  to  be  more  help- 
ful in  society,  he  has  the  main  facts,  and  has  certainly  the  chief 
stimulus  to  abstaining  from  its  use. 

Professor  Theodore  Hough,  Boston,  October  4,  1897. 
I  cannot  pretend  to  an  adequate  acquaintance  with  the  very 
extensive  literature  of  the  physiological  effects  of  alcohol,  but 
have  seen  enough  of  it  to  recognize  that  there  is  much  unne- 
cessary confusion  introduced  by  not  distinguishing  between  the 
effects  of  pure  alcohol  and  the  effects  of  the  various  alcoholic 
drinks  in  common  use.  Among  the  points  which  seem  to  me 
"  sufficiently  well  established  "  are  :  — 

1.  Its  action  in  causing  cutaneous  dilation  and  so  increased 
loss  of  heat  from  the  body.  This  is  probably  the  cause  of  its 
undoubted  efficiency  in  the  early  stages  of  internal  inflammation 
processes,  such  as  colds  or  intestinal  troubles. 

2.  It  is  oxidized  within  the  body  to  a  certain  extent.  I  sup- 
pose the  amount  of  oxidation  varies  to  a  certain  extent  with 
different  individuals,  but  it  has  been  more  or  less  accurately  de- 


54  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

termined  in  certain  individual  experiments.     What  is  not  oxi- 
dized is  excreted  through  the  lungs  and  the  kidneys. 

3.  It  seems  to  be  in  aU  cases  a  strong  diuretic,  although  the 
marked  diuresis  of  some  drinks,  such  as  beer,  must  be  due  as 
much  to  the  other  substances  which  they  contain  as  to  the  al- 
cohol. 

4.  It  acts  at  times  as  a  direct  stimulant,  although  I  am  in- 
clined to  think  that  many  of  its  effects  classed  under  this  head 
are  in  fact  due  to  other  actions.  Thus  in  the  case  of  internal  in- 
flammation —  or,  perhaps  better,  congestion  —  its  medical  value 
is  probably  due  to  the  changes  it  produces  in  the  distribution 
of  the  blood  to  the  various  organs  of  the  body  and  the  conse- 
quent changes  of  blood  pressure  or  blood  flow  in  the  congested 
organs,  rather  than  to  the  "  stimulating  "  action,  which  "  helps 
the  organ  affected  to  make  an  increased  effort  to  meet  the  un- 
favorable conditions  under  which  it  is  laboring."  This  has 
always  seemed  to  me  to  be  a  very  loose  method  of  explaining 
such  phenomena.  Even  with  regard  to  its  stimulating  action 
on  the  nervous  system,  it  seems  to  me  to  be  an  open  question 
whether  this  is  due  to  the  direct  action  of  the  drug  on  the  nerve 
cells,  or  to  a  rearrangement  of  the  conditions  of  the  organism 
as  a  whole.  In  fact,  this  whole  subject  of  the  relation  of  the 
vascular  changes  to  the  action  of  the  drug  on  the  nervous  sys- 
tem has  not  received  the  attention  which  it  deserves.  For  in- 
stance, what  accurate  experimental  knowledge  have  we  of  its 
effect  upon  the  cerebral  circulation  ?  In  short,  it  seems  to  me 
that  the  so-called  stimulating  action  of  the  drug  needs  to  be  in- 
vestigated much  more  carefully  than  has  been  done  in  the  past. 

5.  Certainly  some  of  the  alcoholic  drinks  when  taken  into 
the  stomach  dilate  the  vessels  of  the  mucosa.  Whether  this  is 
an  aid  to  digestion  or  not  is  another  question. 

Among  the  points  which  seem  to  me  insufficiently  proved  to 
form  part  of  any  didactic  teaching  I  should  certainly  include 
the  whole  question  of  its  effect  upon  general  metabolism,  —  the 
production  of  carbonic  acid,  for  instance.  Such  experiments 
are  so  complicated  that  it  requires  a  good  physiologist  to  under- 
stand their  significance,  and  often,  I  fear,  the  best  physiologists 
can  only  be  impressed  with  the  confusion  of  the  whole  matter 
as  it  stands  at  present. 

After  all,  the  practical  point  is  not  so  much  the  effects  of  a 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  55 

single  dose  of  alcohol  as  the  ultimate  effects  of  its  long-con- 
tinued, moderate  use.  The  pathological  lesions  resulting  from 
excessive  use  are  reasonably  well  known,  we  want  more  accurate 
information  as  to  the  regular  use  of  small  or  moderate  doses 
through  long  periods  of  time,  and  you  have  done  us  a  great  ser- 
vice in  carrying  out  the  experiments  upon  cats  and  dogs  recently 
published.  If  similar  experiments  could  be  made  which  would 
extend  your  results  to  the  effects  on  the  various  physiological 
functions,  such  as  the  more  important  reflexes,  the  activity  of 
the  digestive  juices,  etc.,  we  might  feel  that  we  had  a  real 
practical  physiology  of  the  subject.  But  the  labor  of  such  re- 
searches would  be  almost  superhuman. 

As  to  the  second  part  of  your  question  I  can  say  that  I  do 
not  believe  at  all  in  the  so-called  "  Scientific  Temperance  In- 
struction," and  that  chiefly  for  three  reasons  :  First,  It  is  absurd 
to  expect  the  teachers  in  our  public  schools  to  have  that  acquaint- 
ance with  the  results  of  scientific  labor  on  the  subject  which 
alone  would  enable  them  to  deal  intelligently  with  the  j)ractical 
question  at  issue.  They  cannot  get  this  knowledge  from  our 
"  temperance  physiologies,"  the  majority  of  which  are  written 
to  supply  the  demand  for  a  certain  definite  teaching  and  are 
evidently  written  by  men  (or  women)  with  no  real  knowledge  of 
the  subject  at  issue.  I  have  examined  many  of  the  "  approved 
and  indorsed  "  physiologies,  and  I  have  always  ceased  their 
perusal  with  feelings  of  pity  for  the  conscientious  teacher  who 
is  dependent  upon  them  for  information  as  to  the  physiological 
side  of  the  problem.  Only  a  well-trained  physiologist  is  capable 
of  stating  the  real  facts,  and  in  the  nature  of  things  the  avei-age 
teachers  in  our  public  schools  cannot  be  "  well-trained  "  physi- 
ologists. 

Second.  The  great  argument  against  the  use  of  alcohol  is 
the  danger  of  contracting  the  habit.  That  is  a  moral  question 
and  does  not  need  enforcement  by  any  teaching  of  the  physio- 
logical effects.  I  have  nothing  to  say  against  some  sort  of 
temperance  instruction  in  tlie  schools  with  this  feature  promi- 
nent ;  but  I  do  not  believe  that  if  this  fails  of  effect  with  the 
pupils,  the  so-called  scientific  teaching  will  do  any  good.  In 
other  words,  as  a  matter  of  practical  education,  from  the  temper- 
ance standpoint,  it  is  attacking  the  question  in  the  wrong  way. 

Third.  From  the  standpoint  of  personal  hygiene  such  teach- 


56  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

ing  is  one-sided.  Only  a  certain  amount  of  time  can  be  given 
to  the  teaching  of  personal  hygiene  in  our  schools,  and,  as  it 
is,  that  time  is  now  taken  up  almost  exclusively  with  the  teach- 
ing of  the  effects  of  alcohol  upon  the  system.  I  have  yet  to 
meet  a  student  of  our  high  schools  who  could  give  any  account 
of  muscular  exercise,  or  sleep,  or  proper  attention  to  diet,  cloth- 
ing, bathing,  or  mental  activity,  as  agents  in  the  maintenance 
of  health.  Hygiene  to  them  was  only  the  "  use  and  abuse  of 
stimulants  and  narcotics."  1  believe  it  is  possible  to  give  such 
instruction  in  physiology  and  personal  hygiene  which  shall  be 
of  real  use  to  the  pupils  in  the  subsequent  care  of  their  health. 
But  this  is  out  of  the  question  so  long  as  the  time  necessary  for 
such  instruction  is  monopolized  by  temperance  teaching.  The 
whole  is  greater  than  the  part,  and  we  are  to-day  absolutely 
neglecting  everything  but  one  part,  and,  it  may  be  added,  we 
are  doing  that  part  in  an  utterly  inefficient  manner. 

Professor  W.  H.  Howell,  Baltimore,  October  14, 1897. 

I  do  not  believe  that  the  physiological  value  of  alcohol  as  a 
food  has  been  either  demonstrated  or  disproved  —  its  value  as  a 
condiment  and  as  a  stimulant  I  believe  is  indicated  by  experi- 
ment and  medical  experience,  to  say  nothing  of  the  accumulated 
experience  of  mankind  —  provided  always  that  the  quantity 
used  is  not  too  great  for  the  particular  organism  it  is  used  upon. 

The  points  that  seem  to  me  unsettled  are  the  precise  effect 
of  the  alcohol  in  large  and  small  quantities  respectively  upon 
digestion  and  metabolism.  These  points,  I  believe,  cannot  be 
settled  otherwise  than  such  j)oints  are  usually  settled,  namely, 
by  the  accumulated  results  of  experiments  from  many  ob- 
servers. 

As  to  the  second  point,  I  have  at  different  times  examined  a 
number  of  the  "  approved  and  indorsed "  temperance  text- 
books. I  am  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  this  whole  method  of 
treating  total  abstinence  is  a  mistake.  The  argument  in  my 
mind  is  simply  this  :  About  the  excessive  use  of  alcohol  there 
is  no  division  of  opinion.  About  the  fact  that  those  who  begin 
to  use  alcohol  moderately  incur  the  danger  of  becoming  victims 
to  its  excessive  use  there  can  be  no  difference  of  opinion,  but 
the  physiological  reason  for  this  fact  cannot  be  furnished.     It 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  57 

is  proved  abundantly  simply  by  the  facts  of  human  experience, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  temperance  that  is  quite  suffi- 
cient. The  effects  of  a  moderate  use  of  alcohol,  that  is,  the 
direct  physiological  effects,  are  not  accurately  known,  and  if  the 
matter  is  discussed  at  all  the  evidence  on  both  sides  should  be 
given.  In  my  opinion  tlie  great  objection  to  the  books  in  ques- 
tion is  that  they  assume  that  alcohol  in  all  doses  is  injurious  to 
the  organism  and  treat  this  as  a  truth  that  is  established  by 
scientific  experiments.  They  violate  the  fundamental  principle 
of  scientific  inquiry  in  treating  as  proved  what  is  still  undeter- 
mined. My  own  feeling  in  the  matter  is  this  :  If  the  commu- 
nity believes  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  public  schools  to  teach 
temperance,  or  rather  total  abstinence,  —  and  as  to  this  I  have  not 
wholly  made  up  my  mind,  —  then  let  the  teaching  be  based  not 
on  a  pseudo-scientific  basis,  but  on  the  experience  of  mankind. 
Most  men  will  admit  that  drunkenness  is  a  bad  thing,  and  that 
he  who  drinks  is  in  danger  of  becoming  a  drunkard  ;  but  to 
attempt  to  prove  scientifically,  in  a  form  suited  to  the  minds  of 
the  young,  that  he  who  drinks  necessarily  injures  himself  physi- 
cally is  an  impossibility.  It  can  be  made  apparently  successful 
as  a  logical  argument  only  by  violating  the  truth  in  the  premises 
laid  down. 

Dr.  P.  A.  Levene,  New  York,  November  13,  1897. 

I  greatly  regret  that  the  state  of  my  health  does  not  permit 
me  to  answer  the  questions  contained  in  your  letter  as  fully  as  I 
should  have  liked  to ;  but  I  consider  the  subject  of  such  impor- 
tance that  I  desire  to  add  a  few  words  to  all  the  other  answers 
received  by  you,  in  order  to  record  one  more  vote  against  the 
too  frequent  administration  of  alcohol  by  the  physicians  of  the 
U.  S.  A. 

As  to  the  use  of  alcohol,  there  are  two  ways  of  its  consumma- 
tion by  individuals.  One,  as  a  food  or  a  constant  stimulant  to 
digestion  during  meals  (so  to  say  its  "  chronic  use  "),  the  other 
as  a  stimulant  in  the  course  of  acute  diseases,  such  as  fatigue, 
temporary  indigestion,  etc.  (its  "  temporary  use  "). 

As  regards  the  first,  the  views  of  men  of  science  on  the  sub- 
ject are  pretty  harmonious  —  they  are  hardly  favorable  to  the 
use  of  the  too  dangerous  food,  though  it  is  largely  advertised  by 
practitioners. 


58  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

I  do  not  wish  to  describe  here  fully  the  symptoms  of  chronic 
alcoholisms  of  the  anatomical  changes  —  the  organs,  etc.,  but  I 
shall  characterize  them  all  in  a  few  words,  demonstrating  at  the 
same  time  the  physiologic  meaning  of  those  changes. 

The  chief  aim  of  medicine  is,  in  fact,  to  preserve  the  vigor 

of  the  organism,  its  strength  for  the  struggle  with  unfavorable 

and  frequently  hostile  surroundings,  and  every  physician  knows 

■  that  old  age  is  the  most  unfavorable  condition  in  our  struggle 

with  diseases. 

But  can  the  age  of  the  organism  actually  be  measured  by  the 
number  of  years  lived  by  a  certain  individual  ?  By  no  means. 
By  age,  as  a  factor  in  the  struggle  of  the  organism  with  the 
surroundings,  we  understand  a  certain  condition  of  the  tissues 
of  the  organs. 

My  late  great  master,  Professor  Botkin,  St.  Petersburg,  used 
to  say  that  the  age  of  a  person  is  determined  by  the  relative 
amount  of  connective  tissue  and  specific  elements  (cells)  in  the 
organism. 

And  no  other  remedy  taken  a  la  longue  destroys  so  easily 
the  various  tissues,  leaving  in  their  place  connective  tissues, 
thus  causing  premature  age  of  the  individual,  as  does  alcohol. 

This  fact  will  be  readily  understood  if  we  bear  in  mind 
the  great  osmotic  power  of  alcohol  in  comparison  with  tonics 
and  stimidants  of  a  more  complicated  chemical  composition 
(Overton). 

This  result  of  chronic  alcoholism  is  a  long-established  fact ; 
it  is  also  a  well  established  fact  thait  it  is  sufficient  to  consume 
but  very  small  doses  of  alcohol,  taking  them  regularly  day 
after  day,  in  order  to  belong  to  the  legion  of  chronic  alcoholics. 

And  if,  after  all,  medical  men  do  prescribe  alcohol,  it  is 
because  they  believe  in  its  power  to  stimulate  the  appetite  and 
digestion. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  great  detail  as  to  that  sup- 
posed property  of  alcohol.  Suffice  it  to  remark  that  no  experi- 
ments on  alcohol  and  its  influence  on  digestion  (Chittenden 
and  Mendel,  for  instance)  have  ever  disclosed  any  beneficial 
effect  of  it. 

And  if  we  find  a  good  many  persons  who  cannot  eat  and 
digest  without  alcohol  to  their  meals,  that  fact  is  to  be  explained 
chiefly  by  the  pathological  condition  to  which  they  have  reduced 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  59 

their  organism  by  constant  use  of  alcohol.  Such  individuals 
actually  do  digest  better  using  alcohol  to  their  meals  than  with- 
out it,  as  was  shown  by  a  number  of  works  in  the  clinics  of  St. 
Petersburg. 

But  if  many  physicians  who  do  see  the  danger  of  using 
alcohol  as  a  food,  and  its  irrationality,  and  who  agree  with 
the  views  on  the  use  of  alcohol  so  well  expressed  by  Professor 
Bunge,  wiU  still  adhere  to  the  use  of  alcohol  in  acute  diseases, 
I  can  only  repeat  all  I  said  a  little  above  about  the  influence 
of  alcohol  on  the  digestion.  I  mean  to  say  that  there  are  no 
research  works  j)roving  the  advantage  of  using  alcohol  in 
preference  to  other  stimulants  in  the  course  of  acute  diseases, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  research  works  proving  that 
the  acute  diseases  take  a  much  worse  course  with  the  use  of  al- 
cohol, —  that  the  digestion,  upset  by  the  disease,  is  being  still 
further  harmed  by  the  addition  of  alcohol  to  the  toxiues  devel- 
oped in  the  organism,  and  the  digestion  is  one  of  the  principal 
factors  we  have  to  care  for  during  acute  diseases.  (I  am  sorry 
I  cannot  enumerate  the  authors  of  the  researches  mentioned, 
which  were  done  about  six  years  ago,  as  I  am  too  far  from  my 
home  and  my  little  lil>rary,  where  I  have  the  entire  literature  on 
the  subject.) 

The  question  of  the  action  of  alcohol  on  the  heart  and  kid- 
neys, especially  in  fever,  is  even  less  investigated  than  the 
influence  of  alcohol  on  the  digestion  in  the  course  of  acute  dis- 
eases ;  still  we  know  that  the  issue  of  the  disease  depends  on 
the  condition  of  those  organs  more  than  on  anything  else. 

I  do  admit  that  the  number  of  research  works  is  very 
limited,  that  the  difference  of  opinion  on  the  question  in  dif- 
ferent countries  is  very  great;  still,  to  my  mind,  the  student 
should  be  taught  to  prefer  the  use  of  remedies  whose  influence 
has  been  more  carefully  studied  than  that  of  alcohol. 

There  is  one  other  point  I  should  like  to  answer,  and  that  is, 
whether  the  study  of  the  physiological  influence  of  alcohol 
should  be  introduced  into  elementary  schools,  and  within  what 
limits. 

In  fact,  I  hardly  believe  it  possible  to  instruct  a  teacher  as  to 
how  much  of  a  certain  truth  he  is  to  tell  to  his  pupils,  young 
as  they  may  be.  It  is  not  a  question  of  quantity  ;  it  is  a 
question  of  the  form  in  which  it  is  communicated.     All  we  can 


60  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

tell  to  the  student,  we  can  also  tell  to  the  primary  boy,  if  we 
know  how. 

I  shall  also  not  dwell  at  any  great  length  on  arguments  as 
to  the  efficiency  of  this  method  of  preventing  alcoholism,  but 
shall  only  mention  — 

1.  There  is  no  better  weapon  in  the  struggle  against  evil 
than  knowledge. 

2.  Of  all  we  learn,  we  retain  longest  in  our  minds  what  We 
have  learned  in  the  days  of  our  youth  (on  the  principle  of  the 
law  of  reflexes). 

3.  If  only  one  child  out  of  hundreds  shall  be  saved  by  this 
method  from  alcoholism,  the  work  will  be  worth  doing. 

By  all  that  I  do  not  mean,  however,  to  say  that  the  teaching 
of  the  influence  of  alcoholism  on  the  organism  is  the  only  or 
best  way  of  preventing  alcoholism. 

I  hope  you  will  pardon  the  shortness  and  superficiality  of  my 
answer,  as  I  am,  I  repeat,  too  ill  to  work  up  the  question  as  fully 
as  I  should  have  liked  to. 

As  to  the  instruction  on  the  subject  in  the  elementary 
schools,  it  is  certainly  understood  that  the  influence  of  alcohol 
as  a  food  only  has  to  be  considered,  i.  e.,  its  use  in  hygiene,  and 
not  as  a  medicine. 

Professor  Lafayette  B.  Mendel,  New  Haven,  October  7,  1897. 

In  response  to  your  invitation  I  offer  my  "  testimony  "  con- 
cerning the  topics  suggested  in  your  letter.  I  need  not  add 
that  there  is  "  much  to  be  said  on  both  sides." 

I.  (a)  Ethyl  alcohol,  introduced  into  the  system  in  mod- 
erate doses,  is  burned  up,  only  a  small  part  being  excreted 
as  such.  Comparative  experiments  on  nitrogenous  metabolism 
and  respiratory  exchange  seem  to  show,  on  the  whole,  that  the 
oxidative  changes  in  the  body  are  scarcely  affected  by  moderate 
doses,  i.  e.,  such  as  do  not  interfere  with  the  normal  functions ; 
and  in  such  quantities  alcohol  seems  to  behave  precisely  like  a 
non-nitrogenous  food  stuff.  Inasmuch  as  even  moderately  large 
doses  of  alcohol  have  certain  peculiar  disturbing  effects  upon 
the  normal  actions  of  the  organism,  alcohol  can  be  assigned 
only  a  very  limited  importance  as  a  food,  and  its  use  must  be 
considered  from  other  standpoints. 

(b)    That  alcoholic  fluids  (especially  the  weaker  ones)  form 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  61 

important  condiments  must,  I  think,  be  admitted.  When  it  is 
remembered  how  largely  the  accessories  to  our  diet  determine 
the  amount  and  character  of  the  food  ingested,  and  further- 
more, how  universal  is  the  use  of  condiments,  it  is  eminently 
fair  to  compare  the  alcoholic  drink  with  the  other  common 
accessories.  They  all  agree  —  and  here,  again,  when  taken  in 
ajjpropriate  quantities  —  in  exerting  a  more  or  less  marked  ac- 
tion on  the  nervous  system,  upon  the  digestive  functions,  upon 
psycho-physical  states,  e.  g.,  weariness,  etc.  The  alcoholics 
differ  markedly  only  in  one  respect :  the  danger  of  excesses  is 
decidedly  greater.  Considerable  testimony  of  a  definite  charac- 
ter might  be  added  regarding  the  action  of  alcohol  on  the 
digestive  functions,  a  subject  upon  which  Professor  Chittenden 
and  myself  propose  to  present  some  experimental  data  at  an- 
other time. 

(c)  Alcohol  —  in  physiological  doses  —  is  a  typical  stimu- 
lant and  examples  readily  suggest  themselves  of  its  service  as 
such.  I  am  not  inclined  to  agree  with  those  physiologists  (e.  g. 
Bunge)  who  assign  to  it  a  depressing  action  exclusively.  Its 
action  is  of  short  duration,  and  herein  lies  a  danger.  Further, 
its  use  must  be  modified  in  many  instances,  owing  to  pecul- 
iarities of  the  individual  rather  than  the  agent ;  but  in  this 
respect  again  alcohol  shares  a  quality  common  to  the  majority 
of  substances  employed  like  it.  I  cannot  refrain  from  quoting 
a  few  words  from  O.  Funke  which  always  seem  to  me  to  be 
worthy  of  repetition  in  this  connection.     He  wrote,  — 

"  It  is  foolisli  and  unjustifiable  to  put  a  stop  to  even  tlie  most 
moderate  enjoyment  of  the  aforementioned  stimulus.  One  does  not 
need  to  have  recourse  to  the  argument  that  the  inclination  to  acquire 
it  in  some  form  or  other  is  really  the  expression  of  an  inextinguishable 
human  instinct  which  has  made  itself  felt  in  all  ages  and  by  all  peo- 
ples. One  needs  only  to  ask :  Must  our  machine,  then,  always  work 
in  the  same  monotonous,  tiresome  tempo  as  the  pendulum  of  a  clock  ? 
What  harm  is  there  if  from  time  to  time  it  pumps  somewhat  more 
quickly  under  a  higher  pressure  of  steam  if  subsequently,  during  a  pe- 
riod of  slower  work,  it  can  make  good  this  slight  unnecessary  expendi- 
ture of  force  by  drafts  from  an  abundant  store  of  energy,  and  repair 
any  small  damage  which  its  mechanism  may  have  suffered  ?  It  is 
certainly  a  fact  that  many  a  bright  fruitful  idea  has  been  born  from  a 
large  glass  of  fragrant  Rhine  wine  which,  perhaps,  would  never  have 


62  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

come  from  the  water  jug  of  a  vegetarian.  Many  a  bitter  heartache, 
which  would  have  eaten  deeper  and  deeper  by  drinking  raspberry- 
lemonade,  has  been  softened  by  a  nice  cup  of  coffee  ;  many  a  trouble, 
many  a  care,  has  disappeared  in  the  smoke  of  a  cigar,  —  and  that  is 
surely  worth  something  in  this  poor  human  existence."  i 

(d)  With  reference  to  alcohol  as  a  medicine  the  clinician 
alone  is  entitled  to  speak  with  full  authority.  Every  one  knows 
what  extensive  lesions  of  various  oi-gans  excessive  "  doses  "  of 
"alcoholics"  may  give  rise  to.  But  the  "physiological," 
therapeutical,  and  pathological  properties  of  alcohol  deserve  as 
distinctive  treatment  as  does,  for  example,  the  consideration  of 
arsenic  as  a  drug  and  as  a  poison. 

The  preceding  is  intended  to  indicate  very  briefly  what  topics 
I  consider  sufficiently  well  established  and  important  to  present 
to  the  university  student.  The  pharmacologist  and  pathologist 
will  doubtless  present  other  points  of  view.  The  majority  of 
the  better  books  wisely  omit  any  discussion  on  those  topics 
regarding  which  experimental  data  are  largely  wanting  or 
unsatisfactory  (e.  g.,  comparative  action  of  various  alcoholic 
drinks  on  renal  seci-etion  or  exci-etion).  And  in  the  university, 
at  least,  let  us  not  make  the  mistake  of  some  public-school 
enthusiasts  in  conceiving  of  physiology  and  the  study  of  al- 
cohol as  complementary  oi*  equivalent  subjects. 

1  "  Es  ist  thoriclit  und  unbereehtigt  audi  den  bescheidensten  Genuss  der 
genannten  Reizmittel  zu  verwerfen.  Man  braucht  sie  nicht  damit  in 
Schutz  zu  nehmen,  dass  der  Trieb  sie  in  irgend  welcber  Form  sich  zu  ver- 
schafFen,  wiederum  der  Ausfliiss  eines  untilgbareii  Menscheninstinctes  ist, 
der  sich  zu  alien  Zeiten  und  bei  alien  Volkern  geltend  gemacht  hat.  Man 
braucht  sich  nur  zu  fragen:  Muss  denn  unsere  Maschine,  wie  das  Pendel 
der  Uhr,  inimer  in  demselben  monotonen  langweiligen  Tempo  arbeiten  ? 
Was  schadet  es  ilir  denn,  wenn  sie  von  Zeit  zu  Zeit  mit  etwas  starker 
gespanntem  Dampf  etwas  raseber  pumpt,  sobald  sie  nur  in  den  darauffol- 
genden  Intervallen  bei  langsamerer  Arbeit  die  Kleine  Luxusausgabe  von 
Kraft  aus  dem  geniigenden  Vorrath  wieder  einbringen  und  etwaige  Kleinere 
Defecte  ilires  Mechanismus  wieder  ausbessern  Kann  ?  Wahrlich  manche 
leucbtende  fruchtbringende  Idee  ist  sehon  aus  einem  Rbmer  duftenden 
Rheinweines  geboren,  welche  vielleicbt  nie  den  nuchternen  Wasserkriigen 
der  Vegetarianer  entstiegen  wiire  ;  mancb  bitteres  Herzweh  das  bei 
Himbeerlimonade  tiefer  und  tiefer  gefressen  hatte,  hat  ein  Schalchen 
KafPee  geniindert ;  manche  Sorge,  manche  Grille  hat  sich  mit  dem  Ranch 
einer  Cigarre  verfliichtigt,  und  das  ist  doch  etwas  werth  in  so  mancher 
armseligen  Menchenexistenz." 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  63 

II.  I  cannot  uphold  a  system  of  instruction  in  physiology 
which  leaves  in  the  pupil's  mind  as  the  uppermost  thought  re- 
garding the  function  of  the  human  hody :  Avoid  drink.  I  am 
in  thorough  sympathy  with  any  justifiable  movement  to  pre- 
vent the  sjiread  of  alcoholism ;  but  I  cannot  uphold  the  farce 
of  ''  scientific  temperance  instruction  "  which  has  received  the 
sanction  of  the  law.  Physiology  and  hygiene  should  be  taught 
as  such  in  our  schools.  The  evils  of  intemperance  may  be 
treated  by  themselves,  if  necessary,  along  with  habits  that  may 
become  "bad"  habits.  Physiology  should  remain  a  true  sci- 
ence, stating  facts  of  observation  and  not  those  presumed  or 
enforced  by  law.  I  am  familiar  with  a  number  of  the  so-called 
"  indorsed "  physiologies  (Steele's,  Hutchinson's,  Stowell's, 
Thatcher  and  Morrill's),  the  worst  of  which  is  perhaps  the  one 
"  prepared  by  order  of  the  General  Assembly  of  Connecticut." 
Furthermore,  the  teachers  are  frequently  incompetent  to  discuss 
the  pharmacology  of  alcohol.  Thus,  one  text-book  prescribed 
for  children  of  seven  years  states  "  that  the  subject  is  presented 
in  language  that  can  be  rcaclUy  understood  by  children,  and  in 
the  form  and  order  best  adapted  to  objective  teaching."  In 
speaking  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  digestive  system,  the 
book  has  sentences  like  this :  "  The  liver  may  become  inflamed 
and  permanently  changed  in  its  tissues,  producing  the  diseased 
condition  called  cirrhosis  with  the  resulting  dropsy  of  the 
abdomen."  A  teacher  using  this  book  (prepai-ed  in  compliance 
with  chap,  cxxxix.  188G  Conn.)  was  asked  by  me  how  she 
would  illustrate  the  properties  of  alcohol  as  the  physiology  de- 
mands. "  Burn  some,"  she  replied,  with  hesitation,  "  to  show 
its  inflammable  qualities.  It  pi-oduces  inflammation."  It  hap- 
pens that  I  myself  was  subjected  to  a  course  in  temperance 
physiologj'  at  the  age  of  twelve  years.  The  instructor  illus- 
trated the  influence  of  alcohol  by  dropping  the  undiluted  white 
of  an  egg  into  at  least  five  or  six  ounces  of  strong  rum,  calling 
attention  to  the  solid  precipitate,  and  concluding  that  as  the 
lining  of  the  stomach  is  albuminous,  therefore  this  coagulating 
action  is  repeated  when  liquors  are  ingested.  Precisely  such 
an  illustration  is  to  be  found  in  Steele's  "  Physiology,"  on  page 
129,  the  author  adding  that  "  the  brain  is  largely  albuminous 
substance."  Another  book,  widely  used,  says :  "  There  is  no 
such  thing  as  a  temperate  use  of  spirits.     In  any  quantity  they 


64:  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

are  an  enemy  to  the  human  constitution."  Stowell's  "A 
Healthy  Body  "  begins  with  the  chapter,  "  AVhat  is  Alcohol?  " 
the  keynote  being  :  alcohol  is  a  poison.  A  college  student  who 
had  learned  the  alcoholic  physiology  in  the  New  York  city 
schools  was  asked  what  he  understood  the  action  of  alcohol  to 
be.  He  informed  me  that  it  served  "  princijjally  to  form  fat, 
which  is  useful  in  the  body." 

I  speak  of  these  examples  to  illustrate  some  of  the  unfavor- 
able results  of  the  present  methods.  The  commonest  error 
consists  in  giving  universal  application  to  facts  which  apply  to 
definite  conditions  alone.  An  untruth  once  discovered  by  an 
individual  will  make  him  doubly  skeptical.  The  obvious  ab- 
surdity of  some  of  the  text-book  discussions  is  certain  to  bring 
harmful  results  and  at  the  same  time  to  injure  the  proper  study 
of  physiology  and  hygiene. 

Physiology  must  be  upheld  as  a  science :  and  every  science 
aims  at  the  truth.  If  "  temperance  instruction "  cannot  be 
made  to  conform  to  scientific  methods,  then  it  must  create  a 
department  for  itself.  Finally,  I  can  scarcely  believe  that  the 
means  and  methods  at  present  ado2)ted  are  justifiable,  whatever 
the  end  in  view.  Man  is  by  nature  a  temperate  animal,  and  it 
is  only  by  distinguishing  between  temperance  and  intemper- 
ance (i.  e.,  use  and  abuse)  that  the  evils  of  alcoholism  can  be 
combated.     Present  methods  fail  in  this  respect. 

Professor  Henry  Sew  all,  Denver,  Colo.,  October  10,  1897. 

I  am  very  glad  to  reply  to  your  circular  dated  the  1st  inst., 
not  that  I  can  give  answers  either  pertinent  or  valuable,  but  at 
least  that  I  may  express  appreciation  of  the  work  you  have 
been  doing,  as  evinced  in  the  reprints  sent  me  from  time  to 
time.  I  have  at  times  formulated  opinions  regarding  the  mat- 
ters touched  in  your  two  eucyclopasdic  questions,  but  the  data 
on  which  my  opinions  would  have  to  be  founded  are  widely 
scattered. 

There  is  only  one  suggestion  I  feel  qualified  to  advance,  and 
that  is  in  regard  to  the  method  commonly  used  in  the  ordinary 
"  temperance  "  text-book  of  physiology  in  impressing  the  evils 
of  alcohol,  etc.  In  these  works  the  truth,  or  what  there  is  of 
truth,  is  presented  with  such  partiality  for  total  abstinence, 
with  such  magnification  of  the  evils  of  any  indulgence,  so  little 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  65 

discrimination  between  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics 
employed  in  therapeutic  and  poisonous  doses,  that  the  idea 
given  the  pupil  is  necessarily  delibei-ately  false.  I  seriously 
believe  that  more  evil  will  probably  accrue  to  the  next  geuerar 
tion  through  this  legalizing  of  lies  than  would  result  without 
direct  effort  for  moral  teaching.  This  is  an  opinion  which  has 
spontaneously  asserted  itself  in  me  from  time  to  time  in  look- 
ing over  school  physiologies  ;  I  have  tried  to  get  a  number  of 
such  books  for  more  critical  review,  but  they  are  not  at  hand. 
I  do  not  by  any  means  mean  to  make  my  strictures  universal. 
One  could  hardly  wish  a  sadder  picture  of,  or  more  powerful 
plea  against,  the  evils  of  intemperance  than  that  to  be  found  in 
the  junior  editions  of  Martin's  "'  Human  Body." 

Professor  G.  N.  Stewabt,  Western  Reserve  University,  October  10, 
1897. 

I  think  the  little  I  know  about  alcohol  in  its  physiological 
relations  stands  very  much  as  I  put  it  in  my  "Manual  of 
Physiology,"  pp.  413,  414. 

I  believe  it  is  unwise  to  attempt  to  teach  ordinary  school- 
children pharmacology.  To  attempt  to  teach  the  pharmacology 
of  a  single  substance,  whether  alcohol  or  any  other,  without 
the  sure  foundation  of  adequate  physiological  knowledge,  seems 
to  me  absurd  ;  and  the  manner  in  wliich  the  attempt  is  made  in 
school  "  Physiologies  "  in  this  country  further  to  be,  as  a  rule, 
dishonest,  or  at  least  disingenuous. 

I  believe  that  it  is  the  office  of  parents,  in  the  first  place, 
and  of  clergymen  and  Sunday-school  teachers,  in  the  second, 
to  warn  the  children  of  more  mature  age,  on  fit  and  not  too 
frequent  occasions,  of  the  moral,  social,  and  hygienic  evils  of 
excessive  use  of  alcohol. 

Finally,  I  do  not  believe  that  it  is  the  lack  of  knowledge  of 
"  the  physiology  of  alcohol  "  which  is  responsible  to  any  great 
extent  for  the  existence  of  intemperance.  Nor  do  I  suppose 
that  the  amount  of  drinking  in  one  of  the  most  drunken 
parislies  in  the  North,  the  habits  of  whose  population  have  been 
intimately  known  to  me  for  more  than  twenty  years,  would 
have  been  greatly  lessened  by  any  exposition  of  the  histological 
or  physiological  changes  produced  by  alcohol  in  the  kidney, 
liver,  or   brain   that  an   omniscient  school-teacher  could  have 


66  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

given  in  the  parish  school.  But  an  amelioration  in  the  material 
condition  of  the  people,  due  in  part  to  wise  legislation  in  re- 
gard to  the  tenure  of  land,  the  spread  of  education,  the  estab- 
lishment of  libraries,  and  the  efforts  of  temperance  societies  to 
provide  entertainments  that  act  as  a  counter-attraction  to  the 
public  house,  have  brought  about,  within  the  period  which  my 
memory  covers,  a  gradual  but  encouraging  change  for  the 
better. 

ENGLISH    AUTHORITIES. 

Sir  T.  Lauder-Brunton London. 

Professor  T.  J.  Cloueton Edinburgh. 

Sir  Michael  Foster,  K.  C.  B Cambridge. 

Dr.  Arthur  Gamgee Slontreux. 

Professor  W.  D.  Halliburton      ....  London. 

Sir  J.  Burdon  Sanderson,  Bart Oxford. 

Professor  E.  A.  Schafer London. 

Dr.  P.  H.  Pye  Smith London. 

Professor  Sir  T.  Lauder-Brunton,  London,  October  22,  1897. 

My  views  in  regard  to  the  physiology  of  alcohol  are  expressed 
in  my  text-book  on  Pharmacology,  but  are  also  given  at  greater 
length  in  my  article  on  "  Stimulants  and  Narcotics  "  in  Cassel's 
"  Book  of  Health,"  as  well  as  in  the  book  on  "  The  Alcohol 
Question,"  Contemporary  Controversies  Series,  published  by 
Strahan  &  Co.,  34  Paternoster  Row,  London,  which  contains 
a  reprint  of  articles  by  several  authors  from  the  "  Fortnightly 
Review."  I  have  also  mentioned  some  views  in  regard  to  the 
prevention  of  drinking  in  "  The  Bible  and  Science,"  a  copy  of 
which  I  now  send  to  you.  I  doubt  very  much  if  instruction  to 
children  in  the  physiology  of  alcohol  would  do  them  much 
good,  and  especially  if  repeated  lessons  would  be  of  much  bene- 
fit. I  should  think  that  more  could  be  done  to  prevent  their 
taking  alcohol,  by  exciting  their  imagination  and  appealing  to 
the  fighting  instinct  by  showing  them  that  it  was  a  brave  thing 
to  resist  the  temptation  to  alcohol,  and  a  weak  and  cowardly 
thing  to  yield  to  it. 

Professor  T.  J.  Clocston,  Edinburgh,  October  26,  1897. 
In  reply  to  your  letter  of  the  20th  September  regarding  the 
Alcohol  problem,  I  would,  without   attempting   to  cover   the 
whole  ground,  briefly  enumerate  my  views  as  follows  :  — 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  67 

1.  Alcohol  in  small  doses  is  a  true  stimulant  to  the  mental 
cortex,  increasing  markedly  the  intellectual  and  emotional  in- 
tensity in  most  persons. 

2.  The  function  of  inhibition  is  always  weakened,  however, 
by  it  in  any  dose,  lai'ge  or  small,  and  this  constitutes  its  great- 
est danger. 

3.  Whenever  there  is  a  neurotic  heredity  or  diathesis,  the 
results  of  small  doses  of  alcohol  are  especially  dangerous  from 
the  intense  feelings  of  pleasure  it  has  the  power  of  producing, 
and  the  strong  craving  for  a  repetition  of  the  dose  and  for 
larger  quantities  it  is  apt  to  excite. 

4.  Therefore  neurotics  of  every  kind  should  especially  be  on 
their  guard  against  alcohol.     Most  of  them  should  be  teetotal. 

5.  It  causes  in  large  and  continued  doses  demonstrable  and 
mostly  inculpable  changes  in  the  brain  neurons,  the  vessels,  the 
lymphatics,  and  the  neuroglia,  —  changes  that  are  inconsistent 
with  sound  mental  activity,  with  morality,  and  with  average 
social  conduct. 

6.  Alcohol  is  a  food,  and  may  in  a  diluted  form  be  a  very 
valuable  adjunct  to  oi-dinary  foods,  by  exciting  appetite,  by 
improving  digestion,  and  by  stimulating  certain  nutritive  pro- 
cesses, e.  g.,  the  laying  on  of  fat. 

7.  As  a  drug  it  is  essential  in  medical  practice. 

8.  As  a  luxury,  a  producer  of  subjective  feelings  of  happi- 
ness and  organic  satisfaction,  it  seems  to  me  to  be  perfectly 
legitimate  if  it  is  used  in  strict  moderation  and  its  dangers  are 
kept  in  mind  and  avoided.  Many  human  beings  have  none  too 
many  sources  of  happiness  and  are  entitled  to  run  some  risks 
even  in  securing  it.  Burke  hesitated  to  condemn  the  poor 
London  gin  drinker  on  this  ground. 

9.  Human  nature  has  in  all  its  history  never  been  content 
with  mere  "  bread  and  butter,"  the  "  ale "  was  invariably 
craved  for  and  got  as  soon  as  the  "  cakes  "  were  secure.  Prim- 
itive man  whenever  he  had  a  "  feast "  introduced  alcohol  or 
some  brain  stimulant  in  some  shape  or  form  as  an  adjunct  to 
feasting,  and  all  his  successors  have  done  the  same. 

10.  It  is  in  my  opinion  at  least  an  arguable  point  whether 
if  all  the  pleasure  given,  all  the  stimulation  to  social  instincts, 
and  aU  the  drowning  of  care  produced  by  alcohol  in  rich  and 
poor  were  summed  up  and  weighed  and  put  in  the  scale  on  one 


68  THE  LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

side,  and  all  the  harm  done  by  it  put  in  the  other  scale  — 
whether  the  result  would  not  be  in  favor  of  the  alcohol ;  and 
if  opium,  tobacco,  Indian  hemp,  tea  and  coffee,  and  cocoa  were 
added,  it  seems  to  me  clear  that  the  vote  must  go  for  brain 
stimulants. 

11.  I  think  plain  dogmatic  teaching  as  to  the  risks  and  real 
uses  of  alcohol  should  be  given  by  teachers,  but  not  teetotal 
teaching.  Especially  the  risks  to  unhealthy  and  nervous  con- 
stitutions should  be  pointed  out.  It  seems  to  me  that  twenty 
lessons  a  year  would  be  overdoing  the  subject.  No  class  of 
men  are  so  apt  to  use  opium,  cocaine,  chloral,  chloroform,  etc., 
and  poison  themselves  thereby,  as  medical  students  and  young 
doctors,  who  know  best  their  risks  and  dangers.  Knowledge 
and  self-coutrol,  like  "  knowledge  and  wisdom,"  far  from  being 
one,  have  ofttimes  no  connection. 

Sir  Michael  Foster,  Cambridge,  England,  December  15,  1897. 
I  have  now  received  your  circular  of  September  18,  and  can 
now  write  more  to  the  point. 

1.  I  give  very  little  space  to  the  question  of  alcohol  in  my 
Text-Book,  because  our  evidence  as  to  its  action  is  so  meagre, 
and  in  part  so  unsatisfactory,  that  it  cannot  be  dealt  with  in 
the  more  or  less  dogmatic  manner  in  which  I  treat  all  topics  in 
my  Text-Book.  If  I  were  to  say  more  than  I  do  say  I  should 
have  to  go  into  a  detailed  discussion,  which  would  be  tjuite 
out  of  place  in  my  Text-Book. 

2.  With  some  reluctance  Shore  and  I  have  added  a  brief 
statement  about  alcohol  as  a  part  of  diet  in  the  second  (Amer- 
ican) edition  of  Foster  and  Shore.  Since  I  have  not  a  copy  of 
this  by  me,  I  cannot  call  to  mind  what  we  do  say.  But  I  have 
no  hesitation  in  stating  that  in  my  opinion  it  is  perfectly  ab- 
surd to  devote  any  large  space  to  a  discussion  of  the  physio- 
logical effects  of  alcohol  in  an  elementary  work,  or  indeed  in 
any  other  than  a  quite  advanced  or  special  treatise.  The  phy- 
siology of  alcohol  is  most  difficult,  and  the  little  exact  know- 
ledge which  we  possess  can  only  safely  be  expounded  to  those 
who  have  a  real  knowledge  of  physiology.  The  guide  to  the 
use  of  or  abstinence  from  alcohol  is  still,  and  must  for  a  long 
time  be,  not  physiology  but  common  experience. 

The  food  of  man  as  of  other  animals  consists  of  two  classes 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  69 

of  material.  In  the  one  class  the  material  contains  potential 
energy,  produces  in  the  body  actual  energy,  and  is  used  for 
that  purpose.  So  large  a  part  of  food  is  material  of  this  class 
that  this  part  alone  is  often  spoken  of  as  food.  In  the  other 
class  the  material  is  of  value,  not  because  it  supplies  energy,  but 
because  it  intervenes  in  the  processes  by  which  the  energy  pre- 
sent in  the  first  class  of  material  is  set  free,  and,  so  to  speak, 
directs  the  setting  free  of  energy.  This  second  class  is  no  less 
necessary  for  the  well  being  and  indeed  the  life  of  the  body 
than  is  the  first.  Some  kinds  of  this  material,  such  as  water, 
sodium  chloride,  etc.,  possess  no  potential  energy ;  other  sub- 
stances of  this  class,  which  are  present  in  aU  kinds  of  food, 
such  as  animal  and  vegetable,  so-called  "  extractives,"  may  con- 
tain a  smaU  amount  of  potential  energy,  but  the  value  of  these 
latter  does  not  depend  upon  their  energy  being  added  to  the 
sum  of  energy  available  for  the  use  of  the  body ;  they  are  of 
use  because,  like  the  material  devoid  of  energy,  they  by  their 
properties  direct  and  govern  the  metabolic  processes  of  the  body. 

The  substances  of  the  second  class  play  a  physiological  part 
in  the  working  of  the  body,  of  the  same  kind  as  that  of  the  so- 
called  drugs ;  the  one  distinction  between  the  two,  as  between 
the  action,  for  instance,  of  sodium  chloride  and  morphia,  is 
that  the  former  in  a  certain  quantity  is  necessary  or  of  advan- 
tage under  all  ordinary  circumstances  of  the  body,  in  what  we 
are  accustomed  to  call  health,  whereas  the  latter  is  of  advan- 
tage in  abnormal  circumstances  only,  in  what  we  call  illness  or 
disease. 

It  follows  from  the  nature  of  the  part  played  by  the  second 
class  of  food  material  that  their  value  to  the  body  is  directly 
dependent  on  the  quantity  taken.  In  the  case  of  each  one  of 
them,  the  proper  action  of  the  substance  depends  on  a  certain 
quantity  being  present  in  the  tissues  at  one  time.  If  too  little 
or  too  much  be  present  the  metabolic  processes  are  disai-ranged. 
Thus  if  too  little  sodium  chloride  be  taken  per  diem  the  body 
suffers ;  if  too  much  be  taken  the  body  also  suffers,  the  excess 
acts  as  what  is  called  a  "  poison."  And  the  same  is  the  case 
with  even  water.  The  limit  as  regards  quantity,  beyond  which 
the  excess  produces  palpable  injurious  effects,  becomes  palpably 
poisonous,  varies  of  course  with  different  substances.  A  very 
great  excess   of  water  is  needed  to  develop  poisonous  effects, 


70  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

but  a  very  moderate  excess  of  a  potash  salt  readily  develops 
them. 

Alcohol  belongs  to  the  second  class  of  food  material.  Though 
it  does  contain  potential  energy,  and  indeed  a  relatively  large 
amount,  and  though  within  the  body  it  does  yield  up  that 
energy  and  thus  adds  to  the  sum  of  actual  energy  of  the  body, 
this  is  not  its  important  action  when  taken  as  part  of  food. 
Its  value  depends  not  on  its  being  used  as  a  substitute  for  an 
isodynamic  quantity  of  starch  or  fat,  but  on  its  directing  and 
modifying  the  metabolic  processes  of  the  body. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  exact  manner  in  which  the  food  mate- 
rial of  the  second  class  intervenes  in  the  metabolic  processes  of 
the  body  is  exceedingly  scanty.  Similarly,  though  we  have  ac- 
cumulated a  large  amount  of  information  about  the  "  action  " 
of  drugs  and  poisons  in  large  doses,  that  is,  in  doses  which 
produce  obvious  physiological  effects,  we  know  very  little  about 
the  exact  way  in  which  doses  of  these  substances  which  do  not 
produce  obvious  "  symptoms  "  affect  the  body.  Our  knowledge 
of  the  action  of  alcohol  is  at  the  present  time  in  the  same  con- 
dition. We  know  something  of  the  physiological  effects  of 
large,  that  is  to  say,  poisonous  doses,  but  we  know  very  little 
concerning  the  exact  physiological  effects  of  doses  of  alcohol 
which  produce  no  immediate  palpable  effects,  in  other  words, 
of  alcohol  as  an  article  of  diet.  The  investigation  of  the  pro- 
blems connected  therewith  are  extremely  difficult  and  complex. 
For  instance,  the  question  :  Does  alcohol  aid  digestion  or  the  re- 
verse ?  cannot,  so  far  as  I  know,  be  answered  physiologically 
at  the  present  moment.  Observations  have  been  made  as  to 
whether  the  addition  of  alcohol  (in  such  a  dose  as  when  taken 
by  an  individual  would  produce  no  decided  obvious  symptoms) 
to  an  artificial  digestion  mixture  influences  the  digestion  ;  but 
these  observations,  whether  they  show  retardation  or  accelera- 
tion of  digestion,  or  neither,  are  not  to  the  point.  The  effect 
of  alcohol  taken  with  food  is  not  limited  to  its  action  on  mix- 
tures within  the  stomach ;  it  may,  and  probably  does,  affect  the 
whole  act  of  digestion  in  many  ways,  some  of  them  perhaps  very 
indirect ;  it  may  act  on  the  secreting  or  absorbing  mechanism 
of  the  stomach  ;  it  may  act  on  the  vaso-motor  system,  and  so  on. 
Concerning  all  this  our  knowledge  is  at  present  insufficient. 

Hence  it  appears  to  me  that  no  distinct  physiological  dicta 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  71 

concerning  the  usefulness  or  the  opposite  of  alcohol  as  an  arti- 
cle of  diet  can  at  present  be  enunciated.  Any  physiological 
opinion  which  may  be  given  is  of  less  value  than  the  teachings 
of  general  experience.  What  physiology  can  state  is  that  if  a 
number  of  persons  say  that  a  certain  quantity  of  alcohol  per 
diem  seems  to  them  to  be  a  means  of  keeping  them  in  health 
and  vigor,  there  is  nothing  in  our  present  knowledge  of  physi- 
ology to  lead  one  to  doubt  the  validity  of  the  conclusions  thus 
drawn  from  experience.  The  fact  that  alcohol  taken  in  a  cer- 
tain quantity  is  obviously  injurious  is  no  argument  whatever 
against  a  smaller  quantity  being  beneficial,  the  exact  limit  vary- 
ing with  individual  features  and  various  circumstances,  for 
this  dependence  of  the  natvire  of  the  effect  upon  the  quantity  is, 
as  has  been  said,  characteristic  of  food  material  of  this  class. 
Since  we  do  not  know  the  details  of  the  action  of  alcohol,  we 
cannot  explain  why  it  seems  in  the  case  of  certain  persons  to 
be  advantageous  ;  nor  can  we  explain  why  A  seems  perfectly 
well  without  any  alcohol  at  all,  and  B  seems  equally  well  with  a 
certain  quantity  taken  every  day.  So  long  as  we  are  ignorant 
of  the  details  of  the  action  there  is  no  reason  why  we  should 
think  B  mistaken  and  A  correct. 

Professor  Arthur  Gamgee,  Montreux,  November  15,  1898. 
The  statement  which  you  have  sent  me  precisely  expresses 
my  opinion  on  the  subject  of  the  use  of  alcohol.  I  have  on 
several  occasions  abstained  from  alcohol  during  a  period  of 
some  weeks,  and  have  found  that  my  working  capacity  was 
thereby  injuriously  affected.  The  assertion  that  alcohol  does 
not  supply  energy  to  the  body  is,  as  every  one  must  admit,  dis- 
proved by  the  experimental  facts  in  our  possession,  and  it  must 
be  admitted  by  all  physiologists  whose  judgment  is  not  tainted 
by  blind  prejudice  that  alcohol  must,  therefore,  be  classed 
among  the  articles  of  food.  The  only  question  which  remains 
to  be  discussed  is,  therefore,  whether  it  is  a  safe  or  expedient 
article  of  food.  Subject  to  limitations  as  to  amount  and  man- 
ner of  consumption,  it  appears  to  me  that  alcohol  is  a  valu- 
able constituent  of  the  diet  of  man  ;  and  personally  I  have  no 
doubt  whatever  that  a  physician  cannot  properly  discharge  his 
duties  towards  his  sick  patients  if  he  systematically  and  uni- 
formly eliminates  alcohol  from  their  diet. 


72  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Professor  W.  D.  Halliburton,  London,  October  20,  1897. 

I  have  i-eceived  your  letter  of  the  18th  ult.  re  the  alcohol 
question.  My  students  are  in  the  main  medical  ones,  and  I 
consider  a  brief  statement  on  the  subject,  such  as  is  contained 
in  my  text-books,  is  all  that  is  necessary  in  lecturing  to  them. 
They  have  the  subject  much  more  fully  set  out  in  their  lectures 
on  Pharmacology,  and  can  see  for  themselves  the  ill  effects  of 
excess  in  drink  in  the  hospital  wards  during  their  clinical 
studies. 

I  consider  the  large  amount  of  space  that  Bunge  devotes  to 
the  subject  uncalled  for.  Bunge,  however,  is  an  enthusiast  on 
this  special  question,  and  his  statements  have  the  bias  usually 
seen  in  enthusiasts. 

With  regard  to  lectures  to  elementary  teachers,  it  is  perhaps 
necessary  that  the  evil  effects  of  alcohol  should  be  dealt  with  at 
somewhat  greater  fullness,  as  they  have  to  teach  a  mixture  of 
Hygiene  and  Physiology  in  their  so-called  Physiology  classes. 
The  proposal  to  devote  a  fifth  of  the  text-books  to  the  subject 
is  to  me  preposterous.  One  might  with  equal  justice  devote 
another  fifth  to  the  opium  question,  another  fifth  to  hashish, 
and  I  dare  say  one  can  find  two  other  drugs  to  fill  in  the  re- 
maining two  fifths,  and  thus  exclude  all  useful  physiological 
teaching.  If  teetotal  propaganda  form  part  of  a  child's  in- 
struction it  should  be  labeled  as  such,  and  not  called  Physi- 
ology. 

Sir  J.  BuRDON  Sanderson,  Bart.,  Oxford,  November  22,  1898. 
The  statement  about  alcohol  that  you  send  me  in  an  amended 
form  so  exactly  expresses  what  I  think,  and  should  like,  if  the 
opportunity  offered,  to  say,  that  I  do  not  wish  to  add  anything 
to  it.  I  myself  often  experience  the  advantage  of  alcohol,  and 
the  more  the  older  I  become.  I  have  also  experienced  the 
horror  of  an  overdose,  particularly  when  experimenting  with 
whiskey  in  association  with  the  late  Dr.  Anstie.  I  can  think 
of  nothing  more  disagreeable  than  the  effort  to  make  observa- 
tions on  one's  self  when  half  poisoned.  But  I  quite  agree  with 
you  that,  notwithstanding,  alcohol  is  not  a  poison,  as  well  as 
with  your  definition  of  a  poison  as  a  thing  which  can  only  do 
harm  and  never  good. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  73 

Professor  E.  A.  Schafer,  London,  October  22,  1897. 

In  reply  to  your  queries  I  beg  to  state  that  the  alcohol  ques- 
tion is  hardly  touched  upon  in  my  course  of  Physiology :  it  is, 
I  believe,  treated  in  the  course  of  Pharmacology.  Beyond  in- 
cidental references  to  its  effect  in  large  doses  in  reducing  tem- 
perature and  its  value  (?)  as  an  article  of  diet,  I  do  not  deal 
with  it. 

Personally,  I  do  not  doubt  that  it  would  be  useful  to  insist, 
in  elementary  courses  of  instruction  intended  for  the  laity,  upon 
the  deleterious  effects  of  over-indulgence  in  alcoholic  drinks. 
Whether  this  would  tend  to  increase  or  diminish  abuse  of  alco- 
holic drinks  can  only  be  determined  by  careful  statistics,  and 
one's  individual  opinion  is  of  little  or  no  value  :  to  assume  the 
possibility  of  such  instruction  increasing  their  abuse  seems  to 
indicate  a  very  definite  belief  in  the  asinine  qualities  of  human 
nature.  I  should  at  least  Ao/^e  that  the  effect  might  be  to  di- 
minish their  abuse. 

Professor  P.  H.  PvE-SMrrn,  London. 

I  have  signed  the  statement  you  sent  me,  and  return  it  to 
you.  One  must  assent  to  the  general  sense  of  such  documents, 
for  every  man  would  use  different  phrases.  The  definition  of  a 
poison  is  not  quite  satisfactory.  Arsenic  and  strychnine  would 
be  excluded,  for  they  sometimes  do  good.  Truly,  everything 
depends  upon  the  how,  when,  and  in  what  dose.  The  value  of 
alcohol  as  a  food  is  in  most  cases  small,  and  chiefly  seen  in  ill- 
ness when  no  other  food  can  be  absorbed.  But  its  dietetic 
value  depends,  like  that  of  mustard,  pepper,  vinegar,  tea,  coffee 
(and  tobacco),  upon  its  sedative  effect  on  the  nervous  system, 
and  its  stimulating  effect  on  the  glandular  system,  as  well  as 
on  its  effect  on  the  heart  and  cutaneous  vessels. 

Physiology  as  an  experimental  science  not  only  has  not,  but 
I  think  never  will  decide  whether  the  moderate  use  of  alco- 
holics is  good  or  bad.  For  many,  perhaps  for  most,  it  is  (phy- 
siologically) indifferent.  But  science  can  say  it  is  (by  defini- 
tion) a  food,  oxidized  and  so  contributing  energy,  and  it  is  not 
(so  taken)  a  poison,  i.  e.,  injurious  to  health. 

Personally,  I  have  a  strong  conviction  that  diluted  spirits  do 
more  harm  than  good,  and  are  only  desirable  in  old  age  or  in 


74  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

special  cases,  while  wines  and  malt  liquors  for  a  large  number 
Qjerhaps  for  most  adults),  when  taken  with  meals,  do  more 
good  than  harm.  The  practice  (or  fashion)  of  ordering  all 
dyspeptics  to  take  whiskey  and  water  with  meals  (for  which  I 
am  afraid  the  late  Dr.  Andrew-  Clark  was  to  some  extent  re- 
sponsible) is  to  my  mind  a  bad  one. 

Temperance  is  much  better  than  abstinence,  and  in  England 
we  ai'e  certainly  far  more  temj)erate  than  our  grandfathers,  as 
temperate  as  we  were  in  the  seventeenth  century  or  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  I  am  afraid  in  France  intemperance  is  more 
common  than  it  used  to  be.  With  us  spirit-drinking  is  worse, 
I  believe,  in  Glasgow  and  some  of  the  Scottish  towns  and  in 
our  Colonies,  j^articularly  the  Cape  and  Australia.  I  have 
never  seen  a  drunkard,  or  one  inclined  thereto,  among  my  Amer- 
ican patients,  and  do  not  remember  to  have  seen  intemperance 
(with  one  exception)  in  the  United  States. 

CONTINENTAL    AUTHORITIES. 

Dr.  A.  Baer,  Penitentiary,  Plotzensee,  near  Berlin.  Pro- 
fessors G.  V.  Bunge,  Basel ;  A.  Dastre,  Paris ;  J.  Dogiel, 
Kasan  ;  J.  R.  Ewald,  Strassburg  ;  S.  Exner,  Vienna  ;  A.  Fick, 
Wiirzburg  ;  A.  Forel,  Ziirich ;  J.  Gaule,  Zurich ;  P.  Heger, 
Brussels ;  H.  Kronecker,  Bern ;  W.  Kiihne,  Heidelberg ;  Ch. 
Richet,  Paris ;  C.  v.  Voit,  Munich. 

Dr.  A.  Baer,  Berlin,  November  26,  1897.     (Translation.) 


Concerning  the  most  important  question,  whether  I  agree 
with  the  sentiment  in  the  newspaper  clipping  which  you  sent 
me  —  which  I  herewith  inclose  and  acknowledge  as  my  own 
view  —  I  am  ready  to  answer  in  the  affirmative  in  the  fullest 
degree.  According  to  the  prevailing  opinion  of  the  great  ma- 
jority of  our  experts,  which  is  based  upon  the  results  of  physi- 
ological experimentation  and  the  observation  of  healthy  as  well 
as  sick  people,  the  facts  in  the  approved  and  indorsed  school- 
books  on  hygiene  and  physiology  can  be  considei'ed  as  the  ex- 
pression of  modern  science,  in  so  far  as  they  bear  upon  the  use 
of  alcoholic  di-inks.  With  us  as  with  you,  now  and  then  a 
voice  is  raised  in  favor  of  the  opposite  view ;  this  cannot,  how- 
ever, greatly  modify  the  above-mentioned  opinion.    In  all  ques- 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  75 

tions  that  come  under  scientific  discussion  there  are  dissenting 
and  modifying  views,  but  through  tliem  all  there  runs  an  under- 
lying opinion  from  which  very  few  of  the  scientists  differ  ;  and 
I  believe  I  am  not  wrong  in  pointing  out  the  statements  in  the 
letter  which  I  have  addressed  to  Mrs.  Hunt  as  an  opinion  of 
this  sort. 

The  second  question  is  whether  I  would  recommend  the  in- 
troduction of  this  method  of  instruction  into  our  schools  in 
Germany.  The  manner  and  method  of  instruction  on  this 
question  must  of  necessity  accommodate  themselves  to  the  sys- 
tem of  public  instruction  in  general.  If  an  instruction  in  this 
direction  could  be  given,  I  would  have  exactly  the  same  things 
taught  which  are  regarded  as  the  essential  things  in  the  books 
above  referred  to.  Moreover,  with  us  it  is  regarded  by  the  ad- 
vocates of  temperance  as  a  very  effective  and  justifiable  method 
of  work  to  acquaint  the  school-children  with  the  true  facts  re- 
garding the  value,  use,  and  abuse  of  alcohol,  i.  e.,  of  all  alco- 
holic drinks.  As  the  government  and  the  school  management 
have  not  thought  yet  of  introducing  such  an  official  instruction, 
we  have  ourselves  tried  to  come  into  relation  with  the  teachers 
in  a  private  way,  and  to  give  them  instruction  in  this  direction. 
Although  we  have  not  yet  accomplished  a  great  deal,  our  efforts 
are  everywhere  openly  recognized  by  the  highest  school  author- 
ities. Here  in  Berlin  we  are  now  trying  to  work  out  this  prin- 
ciple in  the  form  of  health  regulations,  and  to  spread  them 
among  the  school-children.  I  had  hoped  to  be  able  to  send 
you  these  rules,  but  unfortunately  they  are  not  yet  ready. 

I  cannot  regard  it  as  an  argument  against  this  sort  of  in- 
struction that  the  child,  when  thus  taught  in  the  school,  may 
come  into  conflict  with  the  lives  of  his  parents.  According  to 
this  pedagogical  principle,  one  must  not  teach  in  the  schools 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  morality  and  religion,  such  as  the 
decalogue  and  so  forth,  because  unfortunately  in  many  families 
these  are  actually  and  openly  sinned  against.  Many  children 
are  said,  as  you  allege,  to  be  led  to  a  liking  for  alcoholic  drinks 
through  this  instruction.  If  such  is  actually  the  case,  it  is 
caused,  in  my  opinion,  only  by  a  bad  sort  of  instruction  and  by 
a  very  unfortunate  method  which  the  teacher  himself  chooses  to 
employ.  Only  when  the  teacher,  in  the  interest  of  truth  and 
public  welfare,  puts  this  branch  of  instruction  earnestly  and 


76  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

wortliily  before  the  young  and  makes  it  intelligible  to  them,  can 
his  work  be  successful  in  the  highest  sense.  There  is  but  one 
truth  which  the  instructor  can  teach.  If  he  is  opposed  to  this 
principle  and  shows  this  opposition  in  his  method  of  instruction, 
then  he  must  do  more  harm  than  good. 

From  a  very  thorough  study  of  that  excellent  book,  "  The 
Liquor  Problem,  its  Legislative  Aspects,  by  the  Committee  of 
Fifty,  1897,"  I  have  seen  how  strongly  legislation  on  the  alcohol 
question  has  been  influenced  by  politics  and  party  conflict. 
Must  not  the  party  platform  also  influence  the  teacher,  and 
through  this  make  itself  felt  even  in  the  instruction  ? 

An  impassionate,  earnest,  sensible  teaching  of  these  subjects, 
a  truthful,  rational  instruction  of  the  young  about  these  facts, 
cannot  possibly  lead  to  an  increase  in  the  consumption  of  alco- 
hol. It  can  cause  a  decrease  in  the  same  only  after  genera- 
tions ;  but  the  youth  of  the  present  day  can  be  urged  along  the 
road  to  drink  only  when  the  instruction  is  imparted  not  in  the 
highest  sense  of  an  honest  love  for  truth,  but  in  quite  the  con- 
trary spirit. 

Instruction  on  this  question  is  already  given  in  Belgium, 
Holland,  and  England.  An  effort  is  being  made  to  introduce 
it  in  France,  Germany,  and  Austria.  Nowhere  has  such  a 
criticism  been  made  against  this  means  of  fighting  alcohol. 
Were  it  possible  that  this  great  evil  should  arise,  —  granted 
that  the  method  of  instruction  is  the  right  one,  —  then  I  would 
be  among  the  first  to  banish  the  instruction  from  the  schools. 
At  present  an  effect  of  this  sort  appears  to  me  hardly  possible.' 

'  Additional  Testimony  that  the  Indorsed  Temperance  Physio- 
logies ARE  Accurate  ;  from  the  Royal  Sanitary  Commissioner  in 
Berlin,  Germany.  —  Dr.  Baer,  the  foremost  European  specialist  on  the 
subject  treated  in  these  text-books,  has  recently  subjected  these  same  books 
to  a  rigid  examination.     We  give  below  the  result  of  his  investigations  :  — 

Berlin,  N.  W.,  May  15,  Rathenower  atr.  5. 

National  and  International  Department  of  Scientific  Temperance  Instruction 
in  Schools  and  Colleges,  represented  by  Mrs.  Mary  H.  Hunt,  Superintendent,  23 
Trull  Street,  Boston,  Mass.  Honored  Madam,  —  By  your  letter  of  March 
15  you  have  done  me  the  honor  to  request  my  opinion  in  regard  to  the  "ap- 
proved and  indorsed  temperance  physiologies  "  which  have  been  sent  me, 
and  are  now  in  jise  in  the  public  schools  of  most  of  the  States  of  North 
America,  as  to  whether  the  teachings  of  these  school  books,  in  regard  to  the 
value  and  effect  of  alcohol  and  of  alcoholic  drinks,  are  in  harmony  with  the 
principles  of  modern  science. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTKUCTION  77 

Professor  G.  von  Bunge,  Basel,  October  22,  1897.  (Translation.) 
Accept  my  grateful  thanks  for  the  esteemed  invitation  to 
share  in  the  work  of  your  Committee.  As  you  write  me  that 
you  are  in  possession  of  my  text-book  (edition  III.,  1894)  I 
have  nothing  essential  to  add  to  what  is  therein  expressed,  and 
so  send  you  my  further  publications  upon  the  alcohol  question. 
As  to  the  second  question,  I  consider  instruction  in  the 
schools  upon  the  alcohol  question  certainly  very  desirable.  It 
is  important  to  overcome  prevailing  prejudices  before  it  is  too 
late,  that  is,  before  the  young  people  have  become  slaves  to  al- 
cohol. The  number  of  such  slaves  is  greater  than  is  generally 
believed.  It  is  a  fatal  mistake  to  suppose  that  slaves  to  alcohol 
are  only  those  who  lie  in  the  gutters.  There  are  numberless 
men  who  always  drink  one  moderate  glass.  To  this  moderate 
glass,  however,  they  cling  quite  as  inveterately  as  the  morphin- 
ist to  his  syringe.  These  men  are,  and  remain,  the  unrelenting 
enemies  of  the  abstinence  movement. 

With  regard  to  the  number  of  hours,  250  hours  seem  to  me 
to  be  a  great  deal  certainly,  yet  I  do  not  presume  to  contradict 
experienced  abstinence  leaders.  We  ought  not  to  forget  how 
many  more  hours  the  contrary  is  brought  before  the  young. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  truth  of  the  important  question  at  issue,  I  have 
gladly  undertaken  the  task,  and  have  examined  with  strict  impartiality  the 
school  books  sent  me  [enumerating  the  text-books  on  the  indorsed  list]. 

On  the  basis  of  the  examination  I  have  made,  I  can  assert  that  the  above- 
mentioned  school  text-books,  in  respect  to  their  statements  regarding  alco- 
holic drinks,  contain  and  disseminate  no  teachings  which  are  not  in  harmony 
with  the  attitude  of  strict  science.  Ideas  and  facts  as  to  the  actual  value 
of  alcohol  as  a  food,  as  to  the  effect  of  its  occasional  or  habitual  use  upon 
the  body,  upon  the  tissues  and  organs,  likewise  upon  the  brain  and  its  activ- 
ity, are  throughout  represented  correctly  and  clearly,  and  often  with  re- 
markable felicity  adapted  to  the  youthful  understanding. 

Though  personally  I  do  not  practice  total  abstinence,  yet  I  consider  the 
dissemination  of  the  above  teachings  in  the  way  of  instruction  in  the  schools 
wise  and  the  most  admirable  and  effective  means  of  opposing  and  averting 
the  serious  evils  which  alcohol  does  both  the  individual  and  society,  and  of 
bringing  about  a  complete  change  in  the  drink  habits. 

Hoping  for  the  best  results  of  your  efforts,  I  remain  with  much  esteem, 
your  obedient  servant,  Dr.  A.  B.wer,  Geheimer  Sanitatsrath,  Chief  Physi- 
cian of  the  Penitentiary,  Plotzensee,  bei  Berlin.  —  The  Union  Signal  of  the 
National  W.  C.  T.  U.,  Chicago,  July  15,  1897. 


78  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

More  depends  on  the  teacher,  in  my  opinion,  than  upon  the 
number  of  hours.  But  more  important  than  all  teaching  is  ex- 
ample. Verba  docent,  examjjla  trahunt.  Children  are  fine  psy- 
chologists ;  they  pay  little  attention  to  what  is  said,  but  notice 
exactly  what  is  done. 

Please  remember  me  kindly  to  all  fellow  combatants. 

Professor  A.  Dastre,  Paris,  April  15,  1899.     (Translation.) 
One  can  look  at  the  alcohol  question  from  the  point  of  view 
of  hygiene  and  from  the  point  of  view  of  physiology. 

1.  From  the  point  of  view  of  hygiene. 

I  think,  with  you,  that  alcohol,  taken  in  small  and  reasonable 
doses,  in  the  form  of  good  wine,  with  meals,  is  an  excellent 
thing,  very  agreeable,  and  entirely  harmless.  Bonum  vinum 
Icetificat  cor  hominum. 

But  an  excessive  amount,  its  abuse  between  meals,  its  inges- 
tion in  concentrated  form,  are  harmful.  One  should  not  drink 
alcoholic  liquors  on  an  empty  stomach  or  in  excess. 

This  is  what  we  nearly  all  of  us  think  in  our  country  of 
France,  which  still  produces  some  very  good  wines,  rejoicing, 
strengthening,  and  comforting  cor  hommum.  There  are  very 
few  teetotalers  among  us.     It  is  a  rare  species. 

2.  From  the  physiological  point  of  view. 

I  believe  that  alcohol  is  preeminently  a  nervous  stimulant, 
that  it  is  not,  properly  speaking,  a  food. 

Why  do  I  hold  this  opinion  ?  For  theoretical  and  for  prac- 
tical reasons. 

When  alcohol  is  ingested  it  is  divided  into  three  parts :  — 

1st.  About  Jq  is  fixed  in  the  anatomical  elements  (Lallemand 
Perrin,  Duroy,  Rabuteau,  etc.). 

2d.  -f-Q  (?i,  variable,  unknown)  is  eliminated  by  the  respira- 
tion and  by  the  emunctories. 

3d.  -f^  is  oxidized  in  the  circulating  blood  and  produces  heat. 

Alcohol  is  then  thermogenetic  (1  gram  is  thermogenetically 
equal  1.66  gram  of  sugar,  1.44  gram  of  albumen,  or  0.73  gram 
of  fat).  Most  physiologists  say:  it  is  thermogenetic;  it  is 
therefore  a.  food ;  it  is  useful. 

This  reasoning  is  false  in  theory  and  in  fact. 

I.  It  is  false  in  theory. 

To  understand  this  it  is  necessary  to  go  back  to  first  princi- 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  79 

pies  and  to  inquire  what  is  the  function  of  heat  in  connection 
with  vital  processes. 

Heat  is  condition  of  the  medium,  nothing  more.  The  mod- 
ern conception  of  biological  energy  shows  that  this  condition 
may  be  useful,  harmful,  or  indifferent  according  to  circum- 
stances ;  that  it  is  not  always  useful. 

Heat  is  an  excretion. 

There  are  two  types  of  thermogenetic  foods. 

1.  Bio-thermogens,  true  foods,  carbohydrates,  albumens,  and 
fats. 

2.  Pure  thermogens,  false  foods.  Alcohol  is  a  pure  thermo- 
gen.  It  circulates  with  the  blood.  Only  a  tenth  part,  fixing 
itself  in  the  anatomical  elements,  is  a  bio-thermogen,  i.  e.,  a 
true  food. 

II.  It  is  false  in  fact. 

The  experiments  of  many  authors,  particularly  Hammreich 
and  Miura  (my  own  have  confirmed  theirs),  have  shown  that 
alcohol  is  not  isodynamic  with  the  carbohydrates.  My  own  ex- 
periments have  been  principally  upon  malic,  citric,  and  tartaric 
acids,  which,  with  glycerine  and  alcohol,  form  a  group  —  the 
jnire  thermogens. 

I  know  as  well  as  any  one  the  difficulties  of  these  experi- 
ments and  the  numerous  sources  of  error  to  which  they  are  sub- 
ject. There  ai-e  some  physiologists,  and  among  them  perhaps 
your  compatriot  Dr.  Atwater,  who  have  obtained  different 
results. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  agreement  between  theory  and 
experiment  has  here  a  great  value.  I  have  greater  confidence 
in  the  results  of  my  own  experiments  and  of  those  of  Miura 
because  they  are  in  harmony  with  these  theoretical  views.  It 
is  not  a  case  of  absolute  demonstration,  but  of  a  strong  pre- 
sumption. 

Professor  J.  Dogiel,  Kasan,  December  18,  1897.  (Translation.) 
You  and  Dr.  Hodge  have  expressed  the  wish  to  learn  my 
opinion  upon  the  physiological  importance  of  alcohol  as  a 
nutriment,  as  a  relish,  and  as  a  remedy ;  furthermore,  upon  the 
advantages  which  may  be  expected  as  a  result  of  introducing 
the  teaching   of   the  physiology  of  alcohol  into   the   schools. 


80  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

From  my  researches,  which  were  undertaken  principally  for 
the  purpose  of  investigating  the  physiological  effect  of  spirits 
of  wine,  and  which  have  been  published  at  different  times,  I 
have  reached  the  following  conclusions  :  — 

1st.  The  monotomic,  saturated  alcohols  of  the  fat  series 
have  an  essentially  similar  effect.  The  difference  between  them 
consists  only  in  the  intensity  of  their  effect,  which  is  dependent 
upon  the  number  of  the  CH,  group  in  their  composition,  so  that 
methyl-alcohol  (CH4O)  can  be  regarded  as  the  weakest,  and 
amyl-alcohol  (CjHuO)  as  the  strongest,  of  the  five  first  alcohols 
in  this  series. 

2d.  Ethyl-alcohol,  or  the  spirituous  drinks  containing  it, 
exercises  a  strong  effect  upon  the  animal  organism  and  changes 
the  physiological  action  of  the  organs  of  digestion  and  of  circu- 
lation, of  the  nerve  and  muscle  system,  of  the  organs  of  secretion 
and  excretion,  and  of  respiration,  into  a  pathological  activity. 

3d.  Ethyl-alcohol  can  be  regarded  neither  as  a  useful  stimu- 
lant nor  as  a  food  material. 

4th.  If  strong  (ninety  per  cent.)  or  diluted  (thirty  per  cent.) 
ethyl-alcohol  can  in  certain  cases  be  useful  as  a  medicine,  it 
nevertheless  cannot  be  regarded  as  an  indispensable  remedy. 

5th.  Alcohol  and  spirituous  drinks  effect  no  heating  of  the 
body,  but  rather  a  cooling  off. 

6th.  Muscular  action  is  not  increased,  but  is  decreased,  by 
alcohol  and  spirituous  drinks. 

7th.  The  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  heart,  the  distribution  of 
blood,  the  rapidity  of  flow,  and  the  formation  of  the  blood,  is 
shown  as  follows :  in  acceleration  of  the  heart-action  with 
gradual  decrease  of  contractility  on  account  of  the  change  in 
structure,  fatty  degeneration  of  muscle  in  this  oi'gan,  through 
the  continual  use  of  spirituous  drinks  ;  in  the  retarding  of  the 
blood-flow  and  decrease  of  blood-pi'essure,  which  depends  on  a 
change  of  structure  of  the  blood  vessels  and  on  a  similar  change 
of  the  nerve  elements  of  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  and  heart.  The 
composition  of  the  blood  undergoes  a  change  under  the  influence 
of  ethyl-alcohol  which  makes  itself  evident  in  the  disturbed  gas 
exchange  in  the  organs,  and  in  changes  of  the  respiration. 

8th.  A  structural  change  doubtless  also  takes  place  in  the 
nerve-cells  of  the  heart,  of  the  retina,  and  of  the  brain,  as  a 
consequence  of  the  continued  effect  of  ethyl-alcohol. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION,  81 

The  diminution  of  the  visual  power  caused  by  alcohol  ap- 
pears in  both  eyes  at  once  and  with  equal  strength.  With  this 
is  noticed  a  peculiar  characteristic  affection  of  color-perception 
for  red  and  green  light :  all  objects  of  these  colors  seem  more 
or  less  intensely  gray.  This  change  in  color-perception  is  one 
of  the  first  symptoms  of  alcohol-poisoning :  a  further  symptom 
of  such  an  affection  is  the  weakening  of  the  power  of  accom- 
modation. 

In  animals  the  influence  of  ethyl  and  amyl-alcohol  upon  the 
retina  is  shown  in  the  degeneration  of  the  nerve-fibres. 

9th.  Spirituous  drinks  predispose  mankind  to  various  ill- 
nesses. 

10th.  The  use  of  spirits  appears  from  a  social  and  moral 
point  to  be  extremely  momentous.  It  lays  the  foundation  for 
pauperism,  insanity,  and  various  crimes. 

11th.  A  decidedly  restricted  sale  of  spirits,  the  prosecution 
of  adulteration,  the  founding  of  hospitals  for  the  care  of 
alcohol-victims,  —  all  these  are  desirable  and  certainly  useful, 
but  cannot  binder  the  development  of  the  propensity  to  use 
spirituous  drinks. 

12th.  The  effort  to  check  the  propensity  to  the  use  of  al- 
cohol, to  root  out  the  passion  for  drink,  is  most  assuredly  no 
Utopian  project.  It  lies  within  the  limits  of  possibility.  The 
inner  consciousness  provides  the  only  means  to  this  end,  —  a 
firm  will,  a  strong  character,  —  and  is  maintained  only  through 
a  correctly  guided  education  from  earliest  childhood. 

13th.  There  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  influence  of  parents 
and  the  educators  of  youth  upon  the  develojjment  of  character 
and  will. 

14th.  An  intelligent  teaching  of  the  injurious  effect  of  al- 
cohol introduced  in  the  schools  would  be  very  desirable  and 
extremely  advantageous ;  indeed,  therein  lies  the  only  way  by 
which  the  development  of  the  inclination  for  the  use  of  alcohol 
can  be  combated. 

15th.  Such  instruction  as  to  the  terrible  effects  of  spirituous 
drinks  could  be  given  to  young  children  by  intelligent,  cultivated 
women ;  to  youths  of  somewhat  riper  years  by  experienced 
pedagogues  and  persons  who  have  made  a  specialty  of  re- 
searches into  the  physiological  action  of  alcohol  and  spirituous 
drinks. 


82  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

16th.  As  means  for  the  forming  as  well  as  the  improvement 
of  character,  and  as  most  important  influences  against  the 
habitual  use  of  spirituous  drinks,  the  following  agencies  deserve 
consideration :  music,  singing,  various  games  and  excursions, 
and  finally  traveling,  —  because  these  offer  an  entire  diversion, 
acquaint  one  with  his  country,  and  with  nature,  etc. 

Inclosed  I  send  you  my  article  in  Russian,  "  Spirituous 
Drinks  as  Predisposing  Sources  of  Various  Illnesses  of  Man- 
kind." This  has  been  recommended  by  our  clergy  for  the 
libraries  of  the  middle-grade  schools,  seminaries,  and  institutes. 
I  send  you  also  my  research  "  On  the  Influence  of  Music  upon 
Men  and  Animals,"  in  Russian. 

J.  Rich.  Ewald,  Strassburg,  December  13,  1898.  (Translation.) 
The  circular  which  you  so  kindly  sent  me  contained  nothing 
at  variance  with  my  opinion,  and  I  would  gladly  have  pleased 
you  by  signing  it  if  I  were  not  on  principle  in  favor  of  the 
most  stringent  I'estrictions  upon  alcohol-drinking.  Certainly, 
in  small  doses,  alcohol  is  not  harmful,  but,  as  experience 
teaches,  it  very  rarely  stops  at  these  small  quantities,  and  we 
daily  see  the  saddest  consequences  of  excessive  drinking  of 
alcohol.  Because  tempei-ance  is  scoffed  at,  much  drinking  and 
drinking  too  much  will  be  encouraged  in  every  way,  and  in  a 
certain  sense  will  be  rewarded.  Since,  therefore,  a  reaction 
against  alcohol  has  at  last  set  in,  and  the  state,  as  well  as  so- 
ciety, is  making  a  move  against  alcohol,  it  seems  to  me  that 
this  is  an  extraordinarily  important  advance  from  an  ethical  as 
well  as  purely  practical  point  of  view,  and  I  would  like  to  see  it 
encouraged  under  all  circumstances,  even  at  the  risk  of  over- 
stepping the  mark  in  the  first  zeal  and  of  giving  up  the  small 
advantages  which,  under  certain  circumstances,  alcohol  may 
possess. 

Professor  Sigm.  Exnbr,  Vienna,  November  23,  1 898.  (Translation.) 
As  you  see,  I  have  signed  your  circular.  I  should  have  been 
more  in  sympathy  with  it,  however,  if  the  suggestion  of  using 
alcohol  as  a  nutriment  had  been  left  out.  For  this  purpose  it 
is  too  expensive  (combustion  warmth  in  comparison  with  that 
of  the  material  from  which  it  is  made)  and  too  dangerous. 
Aside  from  this,  I  am  in  entire  sympathy  with  your  under- 
taking. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  S3 

A.  P^CK,  Wurzburg,  November  3,  1897.  (Translation.) 
From  your  valued  letter  dated  October  4,  1897,  I  see  that 
you  have  my  little  article  upon  the  alcohol  question.  I  know 
uothing  essential  to  add  to  what  is  therein  said  with  regard  to  the 
physiological  action  of  alcohol.  A  publication  of  Ziehen's  on 
the  action  of  alcohol  came  to  my  notice  a  short  time  ago,  but 
as  it  is  not  at  hand  just  at  this  moment,  I  cannot  give  an  exact 
reply  to  it.  However,  in  Ziehen's  article,  as  nearly  as  1  can  re- 
member, not  a  single  indisputable  argument  for  the  usefulness 
of  alcohol  is  brought  forward.  At  most,  I  could  agree  with 
Ziehen  that  alcohol  in  the  smallest  possible  amounts  is  not 
harmful  to  the  health.  Upon  this  subject  I  have  already  ex- 
pressed my  views  in  my  report  on  the  alcohol  question. 

In  the  mean  time,  there  has  also  appeared  an  investigation  by 
Frey  in  Bern,  which  is  much  discussed,  and  in  which  he  claims 
that  alcohol  will  strengthen  fatigued  muscle.  It  is  my  convic- 
tion that  the  apparent  strengthening  in  Frey's  experiments 
rests  entirely  on  suggestion,  of  the  jjowerful  effect  of  which 
I  have  convinced  mj'self  in  similar  experiments. 

To  your  second  Question  I  have  to  answer  that  I  consider 
instruction  upon  the  effects  of  alcohol  very  advantageous.  I 
believe  that  this  instruction  must  lay  special  stress  upon  the 
undeniable  truth  that  alcohol  is  under  no  conditions  and  in  no 
amount  beneficial  to  the  healthy  body.  Whether  alcohol  can 
act  beneficially  under  morbid  conditions  of  the  body  I  do  not 
consider  proven.  Naturally,  I  cannot  pass  judgment  upon  this 
question  from  my  own  experience. 

Professor  A.  Forel,  Burgholzli,  October  25,  1897.  (Translation.) 
In  my  opinion  the  question  of  the  value  of  alcohol  as  nour- 
ishment, stimulant,  and  particularly  as  part  of  the  human  diet, 
has  been  completely  settled.  Alcohol  is  a  poison  and  not  a 
food.  Its  claim  to  be  of  value  in  economizing  the  use  of  other 
food  has  been  refuted  thoroughly  by  Dr.  Miura  in  von  Noor- 
den's  laboratory.  But,  even  if  there  were  anything  in  this  idea, 
to  the  unbiased  man  of  science  it  must  be  obvious  that  a  sub- 
stance which  in  large  doses  causes  such  frightful  toxic  phe- 
nomena in  all  the  organs  as  does  alcohol  (brain,  liver,  heart, 
etc.)  excites  the  gravest  suspicion  that  when,  in  small  doses,  it 


84  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

diminishes  proteid  metabolism,  it  does  this  at  the  cost  of  the 
normal  functions  and  normal  structure  of  our  tissue.  When 
one  considei's  objectively,  and  without  prejudice,  the  ravages 
caused  by  alcohol-drinking,  in  the  way  of  crime,  death,  suicide, 
physical  and  mental  illnesses,  hereditary  malformations  and 
degeneracies,  it  seeins  utterly  insane  that  humanity  could  use 
such  a  substance  as  an  article  of  food  and  a  relish.  This 
only  goes  to  prove  that  the  primitive  man,  like  the  higher  forms 
of  monkey  and  pithecanthropi,  was  on  the  one  hand  excessively 
inquisitive  and  on  the  other  hand  quite  scientific.  They  dis- 
covered fermentation,  experimented  with  fermented  liquors, 
found  their  narcotic  properties  agreeable,  and,  without  further 
thought,  the  habit  of  alcohol-drinking  was  adojjted  and  con- 
firmed in  the  course  of  centuries.  So  long  as  the  knowledge  of 
primitive  men  taught  them  to  produce  fermented  drinks  only  in 
small  quantities,  and  did  not  show  them  how  to  store  these 
products  in  large  amounts,  the  evil  remained  comparatively 
localized,  and  could  not  threaten  the  progress  of  humanity,  as 
it  does  to-day,  when  alcohol,  produced  in  a  thousand  ways  and 
extremely  cheaply,  brings  in  question  the  endurance  of  our  race 
on  the  earth. 

The  i^rejudice  maintained  for  centuries  through  poetry,  my- 
thology, religion,  and  history  has  rooted  itself  so  deeply  that  it 
blinds  men,  and,  unfortunately,  medicine  and  science  are  also 
held  captive  by  this  prejudice. 

It  is  with  this  as  it  was  with  the  pi-ejudice  in  favor  of  slavery 
in  your  country  fifty  years  ago.  This  explains  the  tremendous 
difficulty  in  obtaining  scientific  moderation  in  judging  the  ques- 
tion of  the  use  of  alcohol.  You  would  i-idicule  me  if  I  should 
put  the  question  to  you  in  aU  earnestness  if  we  ought  not  to 
introduce  arsenic,  atropia,  or  codeine  as  food  or  stimulant  or 
relish  in  our  daily  diet,  and  yet  scientifically  regarded  and  used 
in  dilute  doses  it  comes  to  the  same  thing.  I  especially  recom- 
mend to  you  the  study  of  the  recent  experiments  of  Smith- 
Fiihrer,  Aschaffenburg,  and  others  in  the  laboratory  of  Pro- 
fessor Kraepelin  at  Heidelberg,  upon  the  effect  of  small  doses 
of  alcohol  on  the  mental  activity,  as  well  as  those  of  Professor 
Destree  (professor  in  the  University  at  Brussels,  rue  de  la 
Regence  41)  upon  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  muscle-strength. 
From  all  these  experiments  it  is  clear  that  alcohol  —  in  small 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  85 

as  well  as  in  large  doses  —  paralyzes  and  disturbs  the  activity 
of  the  muscles  as  well  as  the  concentration  and  the  correctness 
of  thought.  Even  7-10  gr.  is  sufficient  for  this,  and  a  certain 
brief  stimulation  of  the  motor  apparatus  is  to  be  regarded  as  a 
reflex  phenomenon  due  to  nerve  injui'y  and  not  as  an  indication 
of  increased  power.  I  advise  you  to  get  the  book  by  Destree 
as  well  as  the  Heidelberg  works. 

You  will  not  require  me  to  describe  alcoholic  psychoses,  alco- 
holic fatty  heart,  liver  cirrhosis, — every  physician  understands 
them  sufficiently ;  allow  me  to  say,  however,  that  the  social 
effect  of  wine  and  of  beer,  the  mental  enjoyment  of  society,  is 
nothing  else  than  intoxication  of  the  brain.  Through  pure  pre- 
judice this  is  commonly  forgotten,  and  yet  it  is  quite  obvious. 

I  hardly  know  what  points  shoidd  be  mentioned  as  "  not  yet 
sufficiently  determined."  The  defenders  of  alcohol-drinking 
are  not  in  a  position  to  state  a  single  reasonable  ground  which 
could  be  maintained  against  a  serious  scientific  criticism.  Their 
whole  argument  rests  upon  fashion  and  public  opinion.  I  re- 
capitulate my  views  in  the  words  that  alcohol  in  all  forms  and 
doses  is  a  poisonous  substance  which  disturbs  the  human  organ- 
ism and  its  functions,  is  extremely  dangerous  and  injurious  to 
individuals  and  to  society,  possesses  not  the  slightest  usefulness, 
and  therefore  should  be  absolutely  excluded  from  human  diet. 

Of  course  it  is  quite  a  different  thing  with  regard  to  the  use 
of  alcohol  as  a  medicine,  for  we  have  the  right  to  temporarily 
employ  poisons.  Still,  even  here  a  monstrous  abuse  is  prac- 
ticed, and  the  indications  for  the  use  of  alcohol  are  very  lim- 
ited :  it  almost  never  happens  that  I  use  it,  for  even  a  stimu- 
lating effect  is  problematical  to  my  mind,  because  it  is  followed 
much  too  quickly  bj-  paralysis  and  depression. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  alcohol  is  very  useful  in  the  arts 
as  a  preserving  medium ;  this  question,  however,  does  not  come 
into  consideration. 

For  the  sake  of  simplicity  I  send  you  with  this  letter  in  a 
newspaper  wrapper  my  point  of  view  and  that  of  my  col- 
leagues as  expressed  in  some  extracts  from  the  "  International 
Monatschrift  zur  Bekiimpfung  der  Trinksitten,"  published  on 
the  occasion  of  the  founding  of  our  German  Temperance 
Medical  Association.  From  these  you  can  see  our  point  of 
view  still  more  clearly. 


86  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

The  second  question  is  more  difficult  for  me  to  answer  be- 
cause, unfortunately,  central  Europe  is  still  inexperienced  in 
this  matter,  and  it  is  not  scientific  to  theorize  a  priori  upon 
matters  which  have  not  yet  been  tested.  It  seems  to  us  urgently 
necessary  that  temperance  shall  begin  in  youth,  for  it  is  much 
easier  not  to  take  up  a  bad  habit  than  it  is  to  free  one's  self 
from  an  old  habit.  On  that  account  we  are  very  much  in 
favor  of  total  abstinence  societies  for  the  young,  and  up  to 
the  present  time  have  had  very  good  results.  Mr.  Denis  has 
written  a  temperance  manual  for  our  youth  (for  sale  at  the 
agency  of  the  Blue  Cross  in  Bern)  which  seems  to  me  very 
good.  I  think  it  is  necessary  that  the  young  should  be  thor- 
oughly informed  about  this  terrible  destroyer  of  nations.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  appears  to  me  injudicious  in  treating  of  other 
sciences,  such  as  anatomy  and  physiology,  to  treat  these  sciences 
from  an  anti-alcoholic  standpoint.  One  ought  as  little  to  teach  a 
religious  or  catholic  anatomy  or  physiology,  as  to  drag  the  anti- 
alcohol  movement  in  where  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  sub- 
ject. I  think  that  in  this  respect  in  America  somewhat  unwise 
methods  have  been  adopted.  It  is  only  in  connection  with 
hygiene  and  chemical  physiology  that  an  energetic  chapter  on 
alcohol  should  be  introduced,  warning  against  the  use  of  alcohol 
and  stating  clearly  and  scientifically  the  arguments  for  this 
point  of  view.  I  believe,  so  far  as  I  can  judge  without  any 
practical  experience,  that  this  would  be  the  right  way  to  in- 
struct the  young  on  this  subject.  My  humble  opinion  is  there- 
fore briefly  this :  an  anti-alcohol  instruction  is  at  this  time  needed, 
but  this  should  not  be  connected  with  the  other  subjects  of 
instruction  except  in  so  far  as  the  alcohol  question  belongs  to 
them. 

I  hope,  honored  colleague,  that  I  have  conscientiously  an- 
swered your  questions  according  to  the  best  knowledge.  For 
me  there  is  only  one  way  to  obviate  the  alcohol  misery,  and  that 
is  the  complete  withdrawal  from  human  diet  of  all  drinks  con- 
taining alcohol. 

Professor  J.  Gaule,  Pegli,  near  Genoa,  October  27,  1897. 
(Translation.) 

I  am  greatly  pleased  with  the  intention  of  the  Committee  of 
Fifty  to  obtain  the  opinions  of  physiologists  on  alcohol,  and  am 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  87 

very  glad  to  express  my  own.  I  value  alcohol  neither  as  a  food 
nor  as  a  relish.  As  a  nutriment  the  calories  contained  in  it 
cost  too  much  and  it  has  too  many  disagreeable  results.  Be- 
sides, it  is  possible,  as  the  works  of  Kubner  and  Miura  seem  to 
prove,  that  this  heat-production  causes  exactly  the  same  amount 
of  outgo  as  o£  income  in  the  organism,  and  so  no  advantage  is 
gained.  Alcohol  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a  relish  because  it 
has  very  disagreeable  after  effects  upon  the  organic  cells.  In 
this  connection  former  observations  are  to  be  brought  into  pro- 
minence,—  upon  the  production  of  catarrh  of  the  bowels,  af- 
fections of  the  liver,  and  of  the  central  nervous  system.  Not 
less  important  are  the  more  recent  views  upon  the  condition  of 
the  organs  of  circulation,  resulting  from  excessive  drinking  of 
diluted  alcohol  (Munich  Bier),  the  changes  of  the  individual 
cells,  particularly  the  germ  cells,  as  brought  to  our  knowledge 
by  Raffael  Dubois,  and  the  influence  of  alcohol  upon  living 
cells  (Overton).  We  must  also  pay  attention  to  the  influence 
of  alcohol  upon  the  rapidity  of  the  various  reactions  of  the 
nervous  system  as  investigated  by  Smith  and  Fiihrer  in  Krae- 
pelin's  Laboratory,  and  to  the  plasticity  of  the  entire  nervous 
system  under  the  influence  of  small  regiUar  doses  during  growth, 
investigated  by  Hodge  and  others.  These  should  all  be  brought 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  growing  generation.  I  must  decline  to 
speak  of  alcohol  as  a  means  of  cure,  as  medicine,  for  that  lies 
beyond  my  province  as  a  physiologist.  I  must  also  say  that  I 
do  not  know  at  what  age  one  can  best  begin  to  teach  young 
people  about  alcohol.  For  that,  the  experience  of  a  public 
school-teacher  is  necessary,  and  I  do  not  possess  this.  It  seems 
to  me,  however,  that  one  must  be  careful  not  to  produce  a  sur- 
feit of  this  theme. 

Professor  Paul  Heger,  Brussels,  December  24, 1898.  (Translation.) 
I  am  sending  you  with  this  letter  three  copies  of  the  syllabus 
of  a  popular  course  I  have  given  this  year.  You  will  find  on 
page  22  and  in  what  follows  the  exact  expression  of  my  thought 
relative  to  the  question  on  the  subject  of  which  you  have  de- 
sired my  opinion. 

"  It  would  be  wrong  to  exclude  beer  and  wine  from  a  dietary 
under  the  pretext  that  these  drinks  contain  alcohol :  it  is  a  well 
observed  fact  that  alcoholism  makes  less  ravages  in  countries. 


88  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

such  as  Norway,  where  the  consumption  of  beer  is  very  wide- 
spread, or  Italy,  which  produces  a  great  deal  of  wine,  than  in 
countries  like  ours,  where  alcohol  is  furnished  cheaply  to  the 
poorer  classes. 

"  That  which  makes  it  necessary  to  prohibit  anything  is  its 
abuse.  With  regard  to  alcohol  and  strong  alcoholic  drinks,  it 
is  necessary  to  absolutely  prohibit  them  from  food  :  the  nutri- 
tive properties  of  alcohol  are  very  uncertain,  while  the  intoxi- 
cant properties  are  very  evident." 

I  agree  entirely  with  the  opinion  of  those  physiologists  who 
refuse  to  interdict  the  use  of  beer  or  wine  :  to  prohibit  beer 
because  it  contains  a  small  dose  of  a  poison  which  is  called  al- 
cohol would  lead  us  in  the  name  of  pitiless  logic  to  also  prohibit 
tea  because  it  contains  a  certain  amount  of  poison,  theine ;  to 
prohibit  coffee,  which  contains  cafeine ;  to  prohibit  even  meat 
itself,  which  undeniably  contains  organic  poisons. 

I  only  regret  that  the  statement  which  you  have  submitted 
to  me  does  not  affirm  at  the  same  time  the  harmlessness  of 
drinks  containing  small  projaortions  of  alcohol  and  the  harm- 
fulness  of  strong  alcoholic  drinks.  Pure  alcohol  is  injurious ; 
alcoholism  is  a  horrible  evil.  I  would  like  this  not  to  be  for- 
gotten when  anything  on  this  subject  is  said  in  the  name  of 
physiology. 

It  is  in  these  terms  and  with  this  sole  reservation  that  I  send 
you  the  expression  of  my  assent. 

Professor  H.  Kronecker,  Bern.     (Translation.) 

I  have  still  to  thank  you  for  your  October  letter  in  which,  on 
behalf  of  the  Committee  of  Fifty,  you  desire  to  know  my  ex- 
perience and  view  with  regard  to  the  influence  of  alcohol  on  the 
animal  organism. 

You  have  the  two  works  on  this  subject  which  were  done 
under  my  direction  :  — 

In  that  of  McGregor  Robertson,  "  On  the  Effect  of  Ether  on 
the  Heart  of  the  Frog  "  (Verhandlung  der  Physiol.  Gesellschaft, 
Berlin,  March,  1881,  reprinted  in  du  Bois-Reymond's  Archiv 
of  1881)  we  furnished,  in  the  essentials,  the  demonstration, 
which  I  believe  important  for  the  alcohol  question,  that  the 
concentration,  not  the  absolute  quantity,  of  the  ether  determines 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  89 

its  action.  A  one  per  cent,  solution  (in  the  blood)  has  always 
a  stimulating  action  upon  the  frog's  heart  (increasing  the  fre- 
quency of  pulsation) ;  a  two  per  cent,  solution  has  a  paralyzing 
effect  even  at  the  beginning  of  its  action. 

In  connection  with  given  doses  of  alcohol  whose  effect  upon 
vegetable  and  animal  life  of  dogs  Hodge  has  investigated  with 
so  much  patience  and  skill,  it  would  be  interesting  to  consider 
also  the  degree  of  dilution  in  which  the  alcohol  is  administered. 
Hodge  says  (p.  11  of  his  excellent  paper),  "  6  c.  c.  alcohol  in 
405?)  solution,  and  mixed  with  their  hreakfast.^'  This  causes  an 
additional  dilution  of  uncertain  amount.  I  remember  very  well 
in  my  student  days  at  Leipzig  that  the  "  early  cup  "  ^  is  the 
most  dangerous,  while  the  a-vft-Troaiov  after  the  Suttvov,  as  was  cus- 
tomary among  the  Greeks,  does  not  as  easily  intoxicate.  There- 
fore the  unadulterated  light  wines  of  6-8fo  alcohol  can  be  taken 
in  large  amounts,  while  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Greek  wines,  con- 
taining 20-21^  of  spirit,  come  nearer  to  the  distilled  liquors  of 
SO-SOji  alcohol.  The  harmful  effect  of  Bavarian  beer,  which 
contains  only  S-^fo  alcohol  (Heidelberg  beer  scarcely  2^)  is 
really  chiefly  due  to  the  quantity  of  liquid  with  which  the  body 
is  filled. 

Oertel  and  Sch Wenninger  (Bismarck's  physician)  have  in- 
deed made  wonderful  cures  by  stopping  the  drinking  of  water. 
Milk  is  also  considered  dangerous  in  these  days  (Runipf)  in 
diseases  of  the  circulatory  S3'stem  because  it  contains  too  much 
water  and  lime.  I  believe  that  the  pernicious  effects  of  alcohol 
proceed  more  from  the  substances  mixed  with  it  (absinthe, 
fusel  oil,  etc.),  and  from  the  immoderate  drinking  of  concen- 
trated solutions  in  badly  ventilated  rooms  where  frequently  the 
entire  atmosphere  is  saturated  with  alcohol  fumes  and  tobacco 
smoke. 

It  has  filled  me  with  astonishment  that  the  movement  against 
alcohol  drinking  could  assume  such  large  proportions  amongst 
your  nation,  —  which  is  free  from  prejudice.  I  was  quite 
shocked  when  I  read  in  Hodge's  letter  (of  September  28)  which 
he  wrote  at  the  request  of  the  Committee  of  Fifty,  that  in  the 
primary  and  middle  grades  every  child  from  six  to  seventeen 
'  That  is,  alcohol  on  a  comparatively  empty  stomach. 


90  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

years  is  instructed  250  hours  in  the  physiology  of  alcohol.  If 
I  were  to  teach  this  subject  five  hours  I  should  know  of  nothing 
more  to  say  and  should  probably  be  discharged  by  the  authori- 
ties as  a  stupid  teacher. 

I  consider  that  such  narrow-minded  methods  of  combat  breed 
fanaticism.  Wine-drinking  is  forbidden  among  the  Moham- 
medans, and  the  Arabs  have  shown  unquestionable  moral  vir- 
tue, bravery,  shrewdness,  inventive  skill  in  technique,  art,  and 
science,  but  they  have  been  utterly  beaten  at  every  point  by  the 
wine-drinking  nations  of  the  West. 

What  great  things  have  our  apostles  of  abstinence  accom- 
plished in  comparison  with  the  great  friends  of  wine  such  as 
Byron,  Goethe,  Bismarck?  Helmholz  and  Ludwig  were  also 
friends  of  a  good  drop. 

The  Mohammedans  make  up  for  their  deprivation  of  wine  by 
the  use  of  haschish  and  opium.  Modern  abstainers  would  take 
up  morphine  injections,  cocaine,  and  other  excitants,  whereby 
maniifacturers  of  chemicals  would  gladly  enrich  themselves  at 
the  expense  of  the  vineyard  owner  and  the  beer  brewer. 

Let  tobacco  be  given  up,  which  ruins  so  many  hearts  and 
brains ;  strong  tea  and  coffee,  which  contain  known  poisons  ; 
then  let  the  sexual  impidse  be  controlled,  —  the  source  of  the 
most  blighting  diseases  and  weaknesses ;  and  all  the  moral 
errors,  —  race  hatred,  party  passion,  class  prejudice,  greed, 
purse-pride,  etc.  It  is  not  by  the  prohibition  of  one  or  another 
error,  but  by  the  example  of  model  lives  that  human  happiness 
is  to  be  secured. 

Professor  W.  KtfHNE,  Heidelberg,  December  16, 1898.    (Translation.) 

I  certainly  agree  with  the  first  paragraph  of  the  translation 
of  your  communication,  but  not  with  the  second.  For  according 
to  my  view  the  oxidation  of  a  substance  in  the  animal  body  does 
not  determine  its  injurious  or  its  useful  effect,  just  as,  inversely, 
many  a  substance  may  be  useful  to  life  without  contributing  di- 
rectly to  the  jjroduction  of  kinetic  energy.  Indeed,  I  consider 
the  second  paragraph  dangerous,  as  you  will  be  understood  to 
consider  alcohol  as  a  food  and  to  recommend  it  as  such.  .  .  . 
If  I  am,  as  your  letter  permits,  to  express  my  views  on  the 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  91 

alcohol  question  in  my  own  way,  I  must  base  my  opinion  only 
upon  general  experience  which  I  do  not  find  to  be  contradicted 
by  any  physiological  or  medical  facts. 

Alcohol  is  one  of  the  many  stimulants  or  relishes  discovered 
by  man  accidentally  and  used  by  him  for  ages  empirically  be- 
cause without  these  aids  he  simply  cannot  live. 

Judging  from  the  bad  results  obtained  from  the  most  nourish- 
ing but  tasteless  prison  fare,  which,  regarded  simply  as  a  food 
mixture  is  evidently  far  better  than  the  food  of  so  many  free 
laborers,  one  cannot  doubt  that  even  the  most  perfect  nutrition 
is  insufficient  without  the  assistance  of  some  relish.  But  all 
these  relishes  which  are  necessary,  even  if  the  fare  consists  prin- 
cipally of  meat,  are  harmful  when  taken  in  large  doses.  This 
can  be  affirmed  even  in  the  case  of  common  salt  and  especially 
of  all  spices,  coffee,  tea,  tobacco,  etc.,  and  yet  no  race  does  without 
them  unless  indeed  for  religious  reasons,  when  the  one  takes  the 
place  of  the  other. 

When  one  sees  how  many  normal,  hard-working  people  ar- 
rive at  a  ripe  age  while  using  these  stimulants  with  discretion, 
among  which  I  include  the  moderate  use  of  alcohol,  one  does  not 
find  good  reasons  for  total  abstinence. 

There  is  only  one  exception  to  be  made,  which,  however,  ap- 
plies not  only  to  alcohol  but  also  to  other  stimulants,  i.  e.,  the 
prohibition  of  its  use  to  children  and  to  adolescents.  Certainly 
one  should  oppose  the  misuse  of  stimulants,  but  I  do  not  think 
that  it  can  be  abolished  by  treating  and  judging  the  moderate 
and  immoderate  uses  alike.     Abuse  and  use  are  opposites. 

Much  more  could  be  said  on  the  subject,  but  I  think  the  pre- 
ceding wiU  suffice,  especially  as  you  will  have  received  many 
exhaustive  treatises  from  other  sources. 

Professor  Ce.  Eichet,  Paris,  France.     (Translation.) 
In  response  to  your  letter  here  are  some  points  relative  to  the 
physiology  of  alcohol  which  appear  to  me  well  and  firmly  es- 
tablished :  — 

1st.  The  use  of  alcohol  is  absolutely  pernicious  to  young  chil- 
dren :  it  is  always  injurious,  but  most  particularly  so  for  children 
less  than  fifteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age. 

2d.  It  has  a  bad  effect  upon  the  gastric  digestion :  where 
alcohol  is  used  there  is  no  more  good  digestion.  People  afflicted 
with  dyspepsia  have  been  cured  by  abstaining  from  alcohol. 


92  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM 

3d.  It  is  believed  that  it  gives  strength,  but  this  is  a  singu- 
lar illusion.  It  reduces  muscular  strength.  The  most  vigorous 
workmen  are  those  who  do  not  take  alcohol. 

4th.  The  least  dangerous  alcohol  is  the  alcohol  of  wine 
(C2HGO),  or  ethyl  alcohol.  Unadulterated  wine  (which  is 
very  rare)  is  without  much  of  a  disturbing  element,  though  al- 
ways injurious  even  in  small  amounts.  All  other  alcohols  con- 
tained in  alcoholic  drinks  (whiskey,  gin,  rum,  brandy,  kirsch, 
bitters,  vermouth)  are  very  intoxicant ;  in  equal  quantity  3,  4, 
5,  or  even  10  times  more  intoxicant  than  ethyl  alcohol.  In 
wine  thei-e  are  very  apt  to  be  these  intoxicant  alcohols,  as  alco- 
hol made  from  grain  is  added  to  wine  to  keep  it. 

5th.  Absinthe  is  the  worst  intoxicant  of  all,  one  of  the  most 
dreadful  poisons  known.  I  demonstrate  in  my  course  that  one 
can  give  500  times  more  absolute  ethyl  alcohol,  very  pure  and 
highly  rectified,  than  of  absinthe.  One  or  two  drops  of  essence 
of  absinthe  produce  terrible  convulsions. 

6th.  Insanity,  suicide,  affections  of  the  nervous  system,  follow 
a  line  exactly  parallel  to  the  consumption  of  alcohol. 

7th.  Alcohol,  though  an  active  poison,  is  an  admirable  medi- 
cine in  certain  cases.  Those  who  are  addicted  to  the  use  and 
abuse  of  alcohol  cannot  when  they  are  unwell  profit  by  the  ad- 
vantages of  its  medicinal  power. 

8th.  Two  litters  of  dogs  have  been  raised,  some  with  alcohol 
and  some  without.  At  the  end  of  a  month  the  alcoholized  pups 
were  miserable  and  dying,  the  others  were  in  perfect  condi- 
tion. 

9th.  It  is  not  yet  known  certainly  whether  alcohol  burns  in 
the  organism  or  whether  it  is  eliminated  in  breathing  under  the 
form  of  vapor  of  alcohol  by  the  lungs,  or  of  acetone  or  of  ace- 
tate or  of  alcohol  by  the  kidneys.  This  is  a  point  demanding 
new  investigations.  In  very  small  quantities  it  stimulates  nu- 
trition, but  a  medium  amount  arrests  it.  I  do  not  believe  that 
this  stimulation  of  the  nutrition  is  a  good  thing. 

10th.  With  regard  to  instruction  in  schools  for  children  and 
youth,  certainly  an  understanding  of  the  dangerous  quality  of 
alcohol  is  of  advantage  ;  but  I  imagine  that  the  real  remedy 
does  not  lie  in  that  direction,  and  that  society  should  defend  it- 
self by  prohibition  or  at  least  by  an  increase  of  the  tax  in  such 
away  that  only  the  very  rich  could  afford  to  be  alcohol  drinkers. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  93 

Professor  C.  von  Voit,  Munich,  December  11,  1898.  (Translation.) 
You  were  so  kind  as  to  inform  me  of  a  movement  which  aims 
to  calm  the  exaggerated  agitation  of  the  temperance  question 
as  well  as  to  contradict  certain  unfounded  physiological  asser- 
tions. Many  of  the  physiologists  who  were  present  at  the  In- 
ternational Physiological  Congress  in  Cambridge  have  signed 
this  document,  and  I  should  gladly  also  have  done  so  had  I 
agreed  with  certain  of  the  less  important  points.  I  agree  with 
you  in  the  opinion  that  a  moderate  use  of  light  alcoholic  bever- 
ages, as  for  instance  beer,  is  not  injurious  to  health.  I  deem 
it  therefore  an  exaggeration  which  may  often  lead  to  hypocrisy 
and  to  other  bad  results  if  the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages  even 
in  moderate  quantities  is  prohibited.  The  same  can  be  said  of 
so  many  other  articles  whose  use  when  exaggerated  becomes  in- 
jurious ;  it  is  only  this  misuse  which  should  be  prevented.  I 
agree  to  and  indorse  the  first  part  of  the  paragraph  which  says  : 
"  The  physiological  effects  of  alcohol  when  consumed  in  diluted 
form  and  in  small  quantities  have,  notwithstanding  the  contin- 
uous researches  of  the  last  few  years,  as  yet  not  been  satisfac- 
torily demonstrated.  Much  remains  still  to  be  investigated  in 
this  matter."  I  do  not,  however,  agree  with  the  second  part,  as 
I  consider  that  the  views  therein  expressed  have  as  yet  not  been 
clearly  proved.  It  is  here  quite  rightly  said  that  alcohol  is  oxi- 
dized in  the  body,  and  that  during  this  process  it  is  changed  into 
energy  the  same  as  other  nutriments  ;  but  if  in  consequence  of 
this  we  assert  that  it  is  physiologically  wrong  to  call  alcohol  a 
poison,  i.  e.,  a  substance  that  can  never  have  useful  but  only 
dangerous  effects,  we  then  claim  something  that  has  as  yet  not 
been  strictly  proved.  A  substance  may  be  consumed  by  the 
body  and  liberate  energy  and  yet  be  harmful.  I  am  not  of  the 
opinion  that  alcohol  consumed  in  the  aforesaid  quantities  is 
only  a  poison  with  dangerous  effects,  but  I  know  not  as  yet 
whether  or  not  it  is  useful  to  the  healthy  organism,  —  for  it 
might  be  possible  that  alcohol  is  consumed  and  produces  energy, 
i.  e.,  heat,  but  that  this  heat  leaves  the  body  by  causing  the 
blood  vessels  of  the  skin  to  expand.  As  to  the  third  paragraph, 
I  agree  to  it  with  the  exception  of  the  last  five  words,  for  I  do 
not  believe  that  healthy  persons  can  find  that  the  use  of  alcohol 
benefits  them.     I  should,  however,  not  object  to  the  third  para- 


94  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

graph  if  in  it  were  said  :  "  Judging  from  a  purely  physiological 
point  no  exact  result  can  be  mentioned  which  would  oppose  the 
views  which  many  persons  have  drawn  from  their  daily  expe- 
rience, namely,  that  alcohol  consumed  in  the  aforesaid  manner 
injures  their  health."  I  drink  beer,not  on  account  of  the  alco- 
hol it  contains,  which  I  could  do  without,  but  because  I  like  its 
taste  and  because  it  quenches  thirst  in  an  agreeable  manner. 


APPENDIX  II. 

In  the  following  pages  will  be  found  the  Temperance  Educa- 
tion Laws  of  the  various  States  of  the  Union  and  the  law  of 
Congress  ajjplicable  to  the  Territories,  the  District  of  Columbia, 
and  the  special  schools  under  the  charge  of  the  United  States 
government.  For  the  States  of  Illinois  and  New  York  two 
laws  are  given,  passed  at  different  dates,  showing  how  the 
Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  has  been  successful  in 
substituting  special  and  stringent  legislation  for  the  general 
provisions  of  the  earlier  laws.  For  the  States  of  Connecticut 
and  New  Jersey  two  laws  are  also  given  (the  more  recent  ones 
passed  since  this  Report  was  prepared),  showing  that  a  reaction 
against  such  stringent  legislation  has  begun.  This  law  may  be 
regarded  as  the  result  of  a  compromise  between  the  teaching 
profession  and  the  total  abstinence  associations.  These  laws 
are  followed  by  a  "  comparative  table  of  requirements  of  Scien- 
tific Temperance  Laws  "  and  by  copies  of  the  bills  brouglit  be- 
fore the  Committee  on  Education  of  the  Massachusetts  legis- 
lature in  1899,  together  with  the  letters  used  in  the  canvass  of 
the  schools  as  described  in  the  Report. 

UOTTED  STATES. 

24  Statutes  at  Large,  page  69. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the 
United  States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled  :  — 

Sec.  1.  That  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and 
special  instruction  as  to  their  effects  upon  the  human  system,  in  con- 
nection with  the  several  divisions  on  the  subject  of  pliysiology  and 
hygiene,  shall  be  included  in  the  branches  of  study  taught  in  the  com- 
mon or  public  schools,  and  in  the  military  and  naval  schools,  and  shall 
be  studied  and  taught  as  thoroughly  and  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
like  required  branches  are  in  said  schools,  by  the  use  of  text-book  in 
the  hands  of  pupils  where  other  branches  are  thus  studied  in  said 
schools,  and  by  all  pupils  in  all  said  schools  throughout  the  Territories, 
in  the  miUtary  and  naval  academies  in  the  United  States,  and  in  the 


96  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

District  of  Columbia,  and  in  all  Indian  and  colored  schools  in  the 
Territories  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  2.  Tliat  it  sliall  be  the  duty  of  the  proper  officers  in  control  of 
any  school  described  in  the  foregoing  section  to  enforce  the  provisions 
of  this  act;  and  any  such  officer,  school  director,  committee,  superin- 
tendent, or  teacher  who  shall  refuse  to  comply  with  the  requirements 
of  this  act,  or  shall  neglect  or  fail  to  make  propei'  provision  for  the  in- 
struction required  and  in  the  manner  specified  by  the  first  section  of 
this  act  for  all  pupils  in  each  and  every  school  under  his  jurisdiction, 
shall  be  removed  from  office,  and  the  vacancy  filled  as  in  other  cases. 

Sec.  3.  That  no  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  to  teach 
in  the  public  schools  of  the  District  of  Columbia  or  Territories,  after 
the  first  day  of  January,  Anno  Domini  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty- 
eight,  who  has  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  physiology  and 
hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic 
drinks  and  other  narcotics  upon  the  human  system. 

Approved  May  20,  1886. 

STATES. 

ALABAMA. 

Code  of  1896. 

Sec.  3546.  1.  Duties  of  the  Superintendent  of  Education.  ...  3. 
He  shall  make  provision  for  instructing  pupils  in  all  schools  and  col- 
leges supported,  in  whole  or  in  part,  by  public  money,  or  under  state 
control,  in  hygiene  and  physiology  with  special  reference  to  the  effects 
of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system. 

Sec.  3577.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  hereafter  to  any  new 
applicant  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of  Alabama  who  has  not  passed 
a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  study  of  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks 
and  narcotics  and  of  their  effects  upon  the  human  system  in  connec- 
tion with  the  several  divisions  of  physiology  and  hygiene. 

Sec.  3578.  Every  teacher  shall  give  instruction  as  to  the  nature  of 
alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and  their  effects  upon  the  human  system, 
and  such  subjects  shall  be  taught  as  regularly  as  any  other  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  and  in  every  grade  thereof. 

[These  laws  in  substance  enacted  February  4,  1891,  found  at  page 
350  of  the  Alabama  laws  of  that  year,  amended  a  statute  passed  Feb- 
ruary 26,  1887,  at  page  129  of  the  annual  laws.J 

ARKANSAS. 

Acts  of  1899,  act  52. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Arkansas : 

Sec.  1.  That  Pliysiology  and  Hygiene,  which  must  in  each  division 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  97 

of  the  subject  thereof  include  special  reference  to  the  effect  of  alco- 
holic drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system,  shall  be 
included  in  the  branch  of  the  study  now  and  hereafter  required  to  be 
regularly  taught  and  studied  by  all  the  pupils  in  the  common  schools 
of  this  State. 

Sec.  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Boards  of  Directors  and  County 
Examiners  to  see  to  the  observance  of  this  statute  and  make  provision 
therefor,  and  it  is  especially  enjoined  upon  the  county  examiner  of  each 
county  that  he  include  in  his  report  to  the  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  the  manner  and  extent  to  which  the  requirements 
of  section  1  of  this  act  are  complied  with  in  the  schools  and  institutions 
of  the  county. 

Sec.  3.  After  two  years  from  the  passage  of  this  act  no  license  shall 
be  gi-anted  to  any  person  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of  this  State 
who  has  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  Physiology  and 
Hygiene  witii  special  reference  to  the  effect  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimu- 
lants, and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system. 

Sec.  4.  That  this  act  take  effect  and  be  enforced  from  and  after  the 
first  day  of  July,  1899. 

Approved  March  10,  1899. 

CALIPOBNIA. 

Act  approved  March  15,  1889.  Statutes  and  Amendments,  1889, 
189. 

Sec.  25.  Section  sixteen  hundred  and  sixty-five  of  the  Political 
Code  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows  :  — 

1665.  Instruction  must  be  given  in  the  following  branches,  in  the 
several  grades  in  which  each  may  be  required,  viz.  :  .  .  .  Elements  of 
physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  instruction  as  to  the  nature  of 
alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and  their  effects  upon  the  human  sys- 
tem. .   .  . 

[The  words  after  "Elements  of  .physiology  "  were  first  added  by 
act  approved  March  15,  1887.  Statutes  and  Amendments,  1887, 
142.] 

Act  approved  March  15,  1887.  Statutes  and  Amendments,  1887, 
142. 

Sec.  2.  Section  one  thousand  six  hundred  and  sixty-seven  of  the 
Political  Code  is  hereby  amended  to  read  as  follows  :  — 

1667.  Instruction  must  be  given  in  all  grades  of  public  schools  and 
in  all  classes  during  the  entire  school  course,  in  manners  and  morals, 
and  upon  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and  their  effect 
upon  the  human  system. 


98  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

COLORADO. 

2  Mills'  Annotated  Statutes,  pages  2125,  2126. 

Sec.  4043.  The  public  schools  of  this  State  shall  be  taught  in  the 
English  language,  and  the  school  board  shall  provide  to  have  taught  in 
such  schools  the  branches  specified  in  fifteen  of  said  chapter,  and  such 
other  branches  of  learning  in  other  languages  as  they  may  deem  expe- 
dient, including  Hygiene  with  special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alco- 
holic stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  body.  [G.  L.  1877, 
page  835,  sec.  2523  ;  G.  S.  1883,  page  904,  sec.  3073  ;  as  amended 
by  L.  1887,  page  401,  sec.  37.] 

[Sec.  15.    Includes  physiology  and  the  laws  of  health.] 

Sec.  4046.  That  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and  spe- 
cial instructions  as  to  their  efllects  upon  the  human  system,  in  connection 
with  the  several  divisions  of  the  subject  of  physiology  and  hygiene, 
shall  be  included  in  the  branches  of  study  taught  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  State,  and  shall  be  studied  and  taught  as  thoroughly  and  in  the 
same  manner  as  other  like  required  branches  are  in  said  schools,  by 
the  use  of  text-books,  designated  by  the  board  of  directors  of  the  re- 
spective school  districts,  in  the  hands  of  pupils  where  other  branches 
are  thus  studied  in  said  schools,  and  by  all  pupils  in  all  said  schools 
throughout  the  State. 

Sec.  4047.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  proper  officers,  in  control 
of  any  school,  described  in  the  foregoing  section,  to  enforce  the  provi- 
sions of  this  act ;  and  any  such  oflicer,  school  director,  committee,  su- 
perintendent, or  teacher,  who  shall  refuse,  fail,  or  neglect  to  comply 
with  the  requirements  of  this  act,  or  shall  neglect,  refuse,  or  fail  to 
make  proper  provisions  for  the  instruction  required,  and  in  the  manner 
specified  by  the  first  section  of  this  act,  for  all  pupils  in  each  and  every 
school  under  his  or  her  jurisdiction,  shall  be  removed  from  office,  and 
the  vacancy  filled  as  in  other  cases.  [The  last  two  sections  were  an 
act  approved  April  4,  1887.     Laws  of  1887,  378.] 

CONNECTICUT. 

Connecticut  Laws,  1893,  ch.  157,  sec.  5,  repealed  sections  2100  and 
2141  of  the  General  Statutes  of  1888.  Sec.  2100  is  ch.  139,  and  sec. 
2141  is  ch.  116  of  the  laws  of  1886. 

The  1893  law  provides  that :  — 

Sec.  1.  The  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and  special 
instruction  as  to  their  effect  on  the  human  system,  in  connection  with 
the  several  divisions  of  the  subject  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  shall  be 
included  in  the  branches  of  study  taught  in  the  common  or  public 
schools,  and  shall  be  studied  and  taught  as  other  like  required  branches, 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  99 

by  the  use  of  graded  text-books  in  the  hands  of  pupils  where  other 
branches  are  thus  studied,  and  orally  in  the  case  of  pupils  unable  to 
read,  and  by  all  pupils  in  all  schools  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by 
public  money. 

Sec.  2.  The  text-books  used  for  the  instruction  required  by  the  pre- 
ceding section  for  intermediate  and  primary  pupils  shall  give  at  least 
one  fifth  of  their  space  to  the  consideration  of  the  nature  and  effects 
of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and  the  books  used  in  the  highest 
grade  of  graded  schools  shall  contain  at  least  twenty  pages  of  matter 
relating  to  this  subject  ;  but  when  this  subject  is  massed  wholly  or  in 
part  in  a  chapter  or  chapters  at  the  end  of  a  book,  such  book  shall 
not  be  considered  as  meeting  the  requirements  of  this  law. 

Act  approved  May  29,  1901.     Public  Acts,  1901,  ch.  81. 

Sec.  1.  The  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  on  health,  and  espe- 
cially on  character,  shall  be  taught  in  connection  with  hygiene,  as  a 
regular  branch  of  study,  to  all  pupils  above  the  third  grade  in  all 
graded  public  schools,  except  public  high  schools. 

Sec.  2.  Suitable  text-books  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  which  ex- 
plain the  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system,  shall 
be  used  in  grades  above  the  fifth  in  all  graded  public  schools,  except 
public  high  schools. 

Sec.  3.  The  provisions  of  sections  one  and  two  of  this  act  shall  ap- 
ply, in  ungraded  public  schools,  to  classes  corresponding  to  the  grades 
designated  in  said  sections. 

Sec.  4.  All  normal  schools  and  teachers'  training  schools  shall  give 
instruction  in  the  subjects  prescribed  in  section  one  of  this  act,  and  in 
the  best  methods  of  teaching  such  subjects. 

Sec.  5.  No  certificate  to  teach  in  grades  above  the  third  shall  be 
granted  to  any  person  who  has  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination 
in  the  subjects  prescribed  in  section  one  of  this  act. 

Sec.  6.  If  it  shall  be  satisfactorily  proven  to  the  comptroller  that 
any  town  or  district,  having  pupils  above  the  third  grade,  has  failed 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  this  act,  such  failure  shall  be  deemed  suf- 
ficient cause  for  withholding,  in  whole  or  in  part,  school  dividends 
which  such  town  or  district  would  be  entitled  to  receive. 

Sec.  7.  Chapter  clvii.  of  the  Public  Acts  of  1893,  and  sections 
2100  and  2141  of  the  General  Statutes,  are  hereby  repealed. 

DELAWARE. 

Act  approved  May  12,  1898.     Laws  of  1898,  ch.  67. 

Sec.  IG.  It  shall  be  the  further  duty  of  each  of  said  committees  and 
Boards  of  Education  to  see  that  all  the  pupils  in  all  the  free  schools  in 
the  district  are  instructed  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  refer- 


100  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

ence  to  the  efEects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  on  the 
human  system,  and  to  see  that  all  the  said  schools  are  sufficiently  sup- 
plied with  such  text-books  relating  to  such  subjects  as  are  furnished 
the  district  in  the  distribution  of  free  text-books  hereinafter  provided. 
Any  teacher  in  any  of  the  free  schools  of  the  State,  failing  to  so  in- 
struct any  pupils  under  his  governance,  shall,  unless  ordered  to  the 
contrary  by  a  school  officer  having  authority  over  him,  be  liable  to  a 
fine  of  twenty-five  dollars,  to  be  recovered  before  any  justice  of  the 
peace  of  the  proper  county  by  any  informer,  and  any  school  officer 
ordering  a  teacher  under  him  not  to  instruct  pupils  as  aforesaid  shall 
be  liable  to  light  fine,  recoverable  as  aforesaid  by  any  informer. 

[An  earlier  law  was  passed  April  12,  1887,  found  in  vol.  18,  ch.  69 
of  the  Laws  of  Delaware,  and  amended  in  1893  at  347  of  the  laws  of 
that  year.] 

FLORIDA. 

Revised  Statutes,  sec.  242. 

Each  board  of  public  institution  is  directed  —  ...  tenth. 

To  prescribe,  in  consultation  with  prominent  teachers,  a  course  of 
study  for  the  schools  of  the  county  and  grade  them  properly  ;  and  to 
require  to  be  taught  in  every  public  school  in  the  county  over  which 
they  preside,  elementary  physiology,  especially  as  it  relates  to  the 
efEects  of  alcoholic  stimulants  and  narcotics,  morally,  mentally,  and 
physically  ;  and  all  persons  applying  for  certificates  to  teach  shall  be 
examined  upon  this  branch  of  the  study,  under  the  same  conditions 
that  other  branches  require  by  law. 

[Law  enacted  June  8,  1889.] 

GEORGIA. 

This  is  the  only  State  having  no  law  on  the  subject. 


Act  approved  February  17,  1899.     Session  Laws,  1899,  page  306. 

Sec.  8.  Teacher's  Certificates  —  Qualifications  —  Signatures.  He 
shall  grant  certificates  to  teachers  in  such  form  as  the  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  shall  prescribe,  and  to  those  persons  only 
who  shall  have  attained  the  age  of  eighteen  years,  who  have  attended 
the  said  public  examination,  and  shall  be  found  to  possess  good  moral 
character,  thorough  scholarship,  and  the  ability  to  instruct  and  govern 
a  school  ;  but  no  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  who  shall 
not  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in  orthography,  reading,  writing, 
grammar,  arithmetic,  geography,  history  of  the  U.  S.,  civil  govern- 
ment, physiology,  and  hygiene,  with  particular  reference  to  the 
effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  upon  the  human 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  101 

system,  theory  and  Dractice  of  teaching,  state  constitution,  and  so 
much  of  the  general  school  laws  as  relates  to  the  duties  and  responsi- 
bihties  of  teaching.  All  certificates  shall  be  signed  by  the  county 
superintendent,  and  no  person  shall  be  considered  a  qualified  teacher 
within  the  meaning  of  the  school  law.  who  has  not  a  certificate 
granted  by  the  said  superintendent  or  other  legal  authority.  Pro- 
vided :  That  all  examination  questions  shall  have  been  prepared  as 
prescribed  by  law,  furnislied  under  seal,  and  opened  before  the  appli- 
cants for  certificates  on  the  day  of  examination.  Provided  :  That 
first  grade  certificates  shall  be  granted  to  all  applicants  who  are 
otherwise  qualified  according  to  law,  and  who  shall  have  passed  all 
the  branches  required  in  this  section,  and  algebra  in  addition  thereto, 
with  a  general  average  of  not  less  than  ninety  per  cent.,  and  with  a 
minimum  of  not  less  than  seventy-five  per  cent,  in  any  branch,  and 
all  applicants  who  are  otherwise  qualified  according  to  law  shall  be 
granted  second  grade  certificates  who  shall  have  attained  a  general 
average  of  eighty  per  cent.,  and  a  minimum  in  any  branch  of  not  less 
than  seventy  per  cent.,  and  third  grade  certificates  shall  be  granted  to 
all  applicants  who  are  otherwise  qualified  according  to  law,  who  shall 
have  attained  a  general  average  of  seventy-five  per  cent.,  and  a  mini- 
mum in  any  branch  of  not  less  than  sixty  per  cent.  Provided,  fur- 
ther: That  each  applicant  for  teacher's  certificate  under  the  provisions 
of  this  act  shall  pay  the  county  superintendent  the  sum  of  one  dollar, 
the  same  to  be  deposited  by  him  in  the  county  treasury  to  the  credit 
of  the  institute  fund,  to  be  used  in  institute  work  in  addition  to  the 
regular  appropriation. 

ILLINOIS. 

Act  approved  June  1,  1889.     Laws  of  1889,  page  345. 

1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  people  of  the  State  of  Illinois,  represented 
in  the  General  Assembly :  that  the  proper  legal  school  authorities  shall 
have  power,  and  it  shall  be  their  duty,  to  have  all  pupils  of  suitable 
age  in  schools  of  Illinois,  supported  by  public  money  or  under  state 
control,  instructed  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference 
to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  beverages,  stinmlants,  and  narcotics  on  the 
human  sj'stem. 

2.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  of  Illinois  after  July,  1890,  who  has  not  passed  a  satis- 
factory examination  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference 
to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  beverages,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  on  the 
human  system. 


102  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Act  approved  June  9,  1897.  Laws  of  1897,  294  (Kurd's  Revised 
Statutes,  1899,  sees.  362,  363). 

Sec.  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  people  of  the  State  of  Illinois,  repre- 
sented in  the  General  Assembly  :  that  "  an  act  relating  to  the  study  of 
physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  public  schools  :  "  approved  June  1, 
1889,  in  force  July  1,  1889,  be  amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows  :  — 

That  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics  and  their 
effects  on  the  human  system  shall  be  taught  in  connection  with  the 
various  divisions  of  physiology  and  hygiene  as  thoroughly  as  are  other 
branches  in  all  schools  under  state  control,  or  supported  wholly  or  in 
part  by  public  money,  and  also  in  all  schools  connected  with  reform- 
atory institutions. 

All  pupils  in  the  above-mentioned  schools  below  the  second  year  of 
the  high  school  and  above  the  third  year  of  school  work,  computing 
from  the  beginning  from  the  lowest  primary  year,  or  in  corresponding 
classes  of  ungraded  schools,  shall  be  taught  and  shall  study  this  sub- 
ject every  year  from  suitable  text-books  in  the  hands  of  all  pupils,  for 
not  less  than  four  lessons  a  week  for  ten  or  more  weeks  of  each  year, 
and  must  pass  the  same  tests  in  this  as  in  other  studies. 

In  all  schools  above  mentioned  all  pupils  in  the  lowest  three  primary 
years,  or  in  corresponding  classes  in  ungraded  schools,  shall  each  year 
be  instructed  in  this  subject  orally  for  not  less  than  three  lessons  a 
week  for  ten  weeks  in  each  year,  by  teachers  using  text-books  adapted 
for  such  oral  instruction  as  a  guide  and  standard. 

The  local  school  authorities  shall  provide  needed  facilities  and  defi- 
nite time  and  place  for  this  branch  in  the  regular  course  of  study. 

Tlie  text-books  in  the  pupils'  hands  shall  be  graded  to  the  capacities 
of  the  fourth  year,  intermediate,  grammar,  and  high  schools  pupils,  or 
to  corresponding  classes  as  found  in  ungraded  schools. 

For  students  below  high  school  grade  such  text-books  shall  give  at 
least  one  fifth  their  space,  and  for  students  of  high  school  grade  shall 
give  not  less  than  twenty  pages  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic 
drinks  and  other  narcotics.  The  pages  on  this  subject,  in  a  separate 
chapter  at  the  end  of  the  book,  shall  not  be  counted  in  determining 
the  minimum. 

Sec.  2.  In  all  normal  schools,  teachers'  training  classes,  and  teachers' 
institutes,  adequate  time  and  attention  shall  be  given  to  instruction  in 
the  best  methods  of  teaching  this  branch,  and  no  teacher  shall  be 
licensed  who  has  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  this  subject 
and  the  best  method  of  teaching  it. 

Any  school  officer  or  officers  who  shall  neglect  or  fail  to  comply 
with  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  forfeit  and  pay  for  each  offense 
the  sum  of  not  less  than  five  dollars  nor  more  than  twenty-five  dollars. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  103 


Act  approved  March  14,  1895.  Laws  of  1895,  page  375  (Burns' 
Annotated  Statutes,  Kevision  of  1901,  sees.  5984a,  5984b,  and 
5984c). 

1.  The  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and  their  effects  on 
the  human  system  in  connection  v^ith  the  subject  of  physiology  and 
hygiene,  shall  be  included  in  brandies  to  be  regularly  taught  in  the 
common  schools  of  the  State  and  in  all  educational  institutions  sup- 
ported wholly  or  in  part  by  money  received  from  the  State ;  and  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Boards  of  Education  and  boards  of  such  educa- 
tional institutions,  the  township  trustees,  the  Board  of  School  Trustees, 
of  the  several  cities  and  towns  in  this  State  to  make  provisions  for  such 
instruction  in  the  schools  and  institutions  under  their  jurisdiction,  and 
to  adopt  such  methods  as  shall  adapt  the  same  to  the  capacity  of  the 
pupils  in  the  various  grades  therein  ;  but  it  shall  be  deemed  a  sufficient 
compliance  with  the  requirements  of  this  section  if  provision  be  made 
for  such  instruction  orally  only,  and  without  the  use  of  text-books  by 
the  pupils. 

2.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  on  or  after  the  first 
day  of  July,  1895,  to  teach  in  a  common  school  or  in  any  educational 
institution  supported  as  aforesaid,  who  does  not  pass  a  satisfactory  ex- 
amination as  to  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and  their 
effects  upon  the  human  system. 

3.  Any  superintendent  or  principal  of,  or  teacher  in  any  common 
school  or  educational  institution  supported  as  aforesaid,  who  willfully 
refuses  or  neglects  to  give  the  instruction  required  by  this  act  shall  be 
dismissed  from  his  or  her  employment. 


Iowa  Code,  1897. 

Sec.  2677.  Physiology  and  hygiene  shall  be  included  in  the 
branches  of  study  regularly  taught  to  and  studied  by  all  pupils  in  the 
school,  and  special  reference  shall  be  made  to  the  eSect  of  alcoholic 
drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system,  and  the 
board  of  trustees  shall  provide  the  means  for  the  enforcement  of  the 
provisions  under  this  section  and  see  that  they  are  obeyed. 

Sec.  2736.  The  examinations  shall  include  competency  in  and  ability 
to  teach  orthography,  and  physiology  and  hygiene,  which  latter,  in  each 
division  of  the  subject,  shall  include  special  reference  to  the  effects  of 
alcohol,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system.  Candi- 
dates for  examination  in  special  studies  need  be  examined  in  such 
branches  only  ;  but  no  special  teacher  shall  be  employed  to  teach  any 


104  THE  LIQUOR  PEOBLEM. 

study  not  included  in  the  certificate.  A  record  shall  be  kept  of  all 
examinations  made,  and  the  names,  ages,  and  residences,  with  the 
date  and  result  thereof. 

See.  2737.  The  superintendent  shall  revoke  the  certificate  of  any 
teacher  who  shall  fail  or  neglect  to  comply  with  the  provisions  of  law 
relating  to  the  teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  such  teachers 
shall  be  disqualified  for  teaching  in  any  public  school  for  one  year 
thereafter.     26  G.  A.  ch.  39 ;  21  G.  A.  ch.  1,  sec.  3. 

Sec.  2739.  The  county  superintendent  shall  annually,  on  the  first 
Tuesday  in  October,  make  a  report  to  the  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, giving  a  full  abstract  of  the  several  reports  made  to  him  by 
the  secretaries  and  treasurers  of  school  boards,  stating  the  manner  in 
and  the  extent  to  which  the  requirements  of  the  law  regarding  in- 
struction in  physiology  and  hygiene  are  observed,  and  such  other 
matters  as  he  may  be  directed  by  the  state  superintendent  to  include 
therein,  or  he  may  thiiik  important  in  showing  actual  conditions  of  the 
schools  in  his  county. 

Sec.  2740.  The  county  superintendent  shall  see  that  all  provisions 
of  the  school  law,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  schools  or  school  officers 
within  his  county,  are  observed  and  enforced,  specially  those  relating 
to  .  .  .  the  introduction  and  teaching  of  such  divisions  of  physiology 
and  hygiene  as  relate  to  the  effects  of  alcohol,  stimulants,  and  narcotics 
upon  the  human  system,  and  to  this  end  he  may  require  the  assistance 
of  the  county  attorney,  who  shall  at  his  request  bring  any  action  neces- 
sary, to  enforce  the  law  or  recover  penalties  incurred. 

Sec.  2775.  [The  board  of  directors]  shall  require  all  teachers  to 
give  and  all  scholars  to  receive  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene, 
which  study  in  every  division  of  the  subject  shall  include  the  effects 
upon  the  human  system  of  alcoholic  stimulants,  narcotics,  and  poison- 
ous substances.  The  instruction  in  this  branch  shall  of  its  kind  be  as 
direct  and  specific  as  that  given  in  other  essential  branches,  and  each 
scholar  shall  be  required  to  complete  a  part  of  such  study  in  his  class 
or  grade  before  being  advanced  to  the  next  higher,  and  before  being 
credited  with  having  completed  the  study  of  the  subject. 

[For  prior  legislation,  see  act  approved  February  17,  1886.  Laws 
of  1886,  ch.  1.] 


Act  approved  March  4,  1885.  Laws  of  1885,  ch.  169  (General 
Statutes,  1897,  ch.  63,  §  206). 

Sec.  1.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  to  teach  in 
any  of  the  public  schools  of  this  State  after  the  first  day  of  January, 
1886,  who  has  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  elements 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  105 

of  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alco- 
holic stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system  ;  and  provision 
shall  be  made  by  the  proper  officers,  committees,  and  boards  for  in- 
structing all  pupils  in  each  public  school  supported  by  public  money 
and  under  state  control  upon  the  aforesaid  topics. 

KENTUCKY. 

Sec.  4383,  Kentucky  Statutes,  1899.  Act  approved  July  6,  1893. 
The  instruction  prescribed  by  the  board  shall  embrace  spelling  .  .  . 
physiology  and  hygiene.  .  .  .  After  July  1,  1893,  the  nature  and  effects 
of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system  shall,  in  all 
schools  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  State,  be  taught  as  thor- 
oughly as  other  required  studies  to  all  pupils  studying  physiology  and 
hygiene  as  a  part  of  this  branch. 

LOUISIANA. 

Act  approved  July  6,  1888.     Acts  of  1888,  No.  40. 

Sec.  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  general  assembly  of  the  State  of  Lou- 
isiana, that,  in  addition  to  the  branches  in  which  instruction  is  now 
given  in  the  public  schools,  instruction  shall  also  be  given  as  to  the 
nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and  special  instruction  as  to 
their  effects  upon  the  human  system,  in  connection  with  the  several 
divisions  of  the  subject  of  relative  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  such 
subjects  shall  be  taught  as  regularly  as  other  branches  are  taught  in 
said  schools.  Such  instruction  shall  be  given  orally  from  a  text-book 
in  the  hand  of  the  teacher,  to  pupils  who  are  not  able  to  read,  and 
shall  be  given  by  the  use  of  text-books  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  in 
the  case  of  those  who  are  able  to  read,  and  such  instruction  shall  be 
given  as  aforesaid  to  all  pupils  in  all  public  schools  in  the  State  to 
all  the  grades  until  completed  in  the  high  schools. 

Sec.  2.  Be  it  further  enacted,  etc..  That  the  text-book  used  for  the 
instruction  required  to  be  given  by  the  preceding  section  shall  give  at 
least  one  fourth  of  their  space  to  the  consideration  of  the  nature  and 
effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  ;  and  the  books  used  in  the 
highest  grade  of  graded  schools  shall  contain  at  least  twenty  pages 
of  matter  relating  to  this  subject.  Text-books  on  physiology  in  use  in 
the  schools  at  the  time  this  act  takes  effect,  which  are  not  in  accord- 
ance with  the  requirements  of  this  section,  shall  be  changed  for  books 
satisfying  the  requirements  of  this  section,  except  when  previous  con- 
tracts as  to  such  text-books  are  now  in  force. 

Sec.  3.  Be  it  further  enacted,  etc.,  Tiiat  no  certificate  shall  be 
granted  hereafter  to  any  new  applicant  to  teach  in  the  public  schools 
of  Louisiana  who   has  not  passed   a  satisfactory  examination   in  the 


106  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

study  of  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and  of  their 
effects  upon  the  human  system,  in  connection  with  the  several  divi- 
sions of  the  subject  of  relative  physiology  and  hygiene. 

Sec.  4.  Be  it  further  enacted,  etc.,  That  each  teacher  of  any  school 
in  this  State  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  public  money  shall,  before 
receiving  any  remuneration  for  services  rendered  in  said  capacity,  file 
a  certificate  with  the  person  by  whom  such  payments  are  authorized 
to  be  made,  to  the  effect  that  such  teacher  has  faithfully  complied 
with  all  the  provisions  of  this  act  during  the  entire  period  for  which 
such  payment  is  sought  and  in  the  manner  specified  in  this  act,  and 
no  money  shall  be  paid  to  any  such  teacher  who  has  not  filed  such  a 
certificate. 

Sec.  5.  Be  it  further  enacted,  etc..  That  this  act  shall  take  effect 
from  and  after  its  passage,  provided  that  section  3,  referring  to  exam- 
ination of  teachers,  and  section  4,  to  the  payment  of  teachers,  shall 
not  take  effect  until  on  and  after  October  1,  1890. 


Chapter  267  of  the  Public  Laws  of  Maine  of  1885,  approved  Feb- 
ruary 19,  1885. 

Sec.  1.  Provision  shall  be  made  by  the  proper  local  school  authori- 
ties for  instructing  all  pupils  in  all  schools  supported  by  public  money 
or  under  state  control  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  upon 
the  human  system. 

Sec.  2.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  of  this  State  after  the  fourth  day  of  July,  1885,  who  has 
not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with 
special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  di-inks,  stimulants,  and 
narcotics  upon  the  human  system. 

MARYLAND. 

Public  General  Laws,  art.  77,  ch.  7. 

Sec.  40.  The  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  with  special 
instruction  as  to  their  effects  upon  the  human  system,  in  connection 
with  the  several  divisions  of  the  subject  of  physiology  and  hygiene, 
shall  be  included  in  the  branches  of  study  taught  in  the  public  schools, 
and  shall  be  taught  to  and  studied  by  all  pupils  whose  capacity  will 
admit  of  it  in  all  departments  of  the  public  schools  of  the  State,  and  in 
all  educational  institutions  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  money  from 
the  State  ;  and  the  said  study  shall  be  taught  to  and  studied  by  said 
pupils  in  said  schools  as  thoroughly  and  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
like  branches  are  there  taught  and  studied,  with  text-books   in  the 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  107 

hands  of  pupils,  where  other  like  branches  are  thus  studied ;  and  said 
text-books  must  be  published,  printed,  and  sold  in  the  State  of  Mary- 
land. 

Sec.  41.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  boards  of  county  commissioners, 
and  of  the  boards  of  commissioners  of  public  schools  of  Baltimore  City, 
county  examiners,  superintendents  of  public  schools  of  Baltimore  City, 
and  boards  of  aU  educational  institutions  i-eceiving  aid  from  the  State, 
to  enforce  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  section. 

[The  above  is  ch.  495  of  the  laws  of  1886.] 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Revised  Laws,  ch.  42. 

Sec.  1.  .  .  .  [The  public]  schools  shall  be  taught  by  teachers  of 
competent  ability  and  good  morals,  and  shall  give  instruction  in  .  .  . 
physiology  and  hygiene.  ...  In  each  of  the  subjects  of  physiology 
and  hygiene,  special  instruction  as  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks 
and  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system  shall  be  taught 
as  a  regular  branch  of  study  to  all  pupils  in  all  schools  which  are 
supported  wholly  or  partly  by  public  money,  except  schools  which  are 
maintained  solely  for  instruction  in  particular  branches. 

[So  enacted  in  substance  in  ch.  332  of  the  Acts  of  1885.] 

[See  Acts  of  1885,  ch.  332,  and  Acts  of  1898,  ch.  496,  sec.  1, 
which  superseded  it.] 

MICHIGAN. 

The  people  of  the  State  of  Michigan  enact  that  section  15  of  chapter 
3  of  act  No.  164  of  the  Public  Acts  of  1881,  entitled  "An  act  to  revise 
and  consolidate  the  laws  relating  to  public  instruction  and  primary 
schools,  and  to  repeal  all  statutes  contravening  the  provisions  of  this 
act,"  approved  May  21,  1881,  as  amended  by  act  No.  93  of  the  Pub- 
lic Acts  of  1883,  approved  Jlay  16,  1883,  be  and  the  same  is  hereby 
amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows  :  — 

Sec.  15.  The  district  board  shall  specify  the  studies  to  be  pursued 
in  the  schools  of  the  districts,  and  in  addition  to  the  branches  in  which 
instruction  is  now  required  by  law  to  be  given  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  State,  instruction  shall  be  given  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with 
especial  reference  to  the  nature  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  and  their 
effect  upon  the  human  system.  Such  instruction  shall  be  given  by 
the  aid  of  text-books  in  the  case  of  pupils  who  are  able  to  read,  and 
as  thoroughly  as  in  other  studies  j)ursued  in  the  same  school.  The  text- 
books to  be  used  for  such  instruction  shall  give  at  least  one  fourth  of 
their  space  to  the  consideration  of  the  nature  and  eifects  of  alcoholic 
drinks,  and  narcotics,  and  the  books  used  in  the  highest  grade  of  graded 


108  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

schools  shall  contain,  at  least,  twenty  pages  of  matter  relating  to  this 
subject.  Text-books  used  in  giving  the  foregoing  instruction  shall 
first  be  approved  by  the  State  Board  of  Education.  Each  school 
board  making  a  selection  of  text-books  under  the  provisions  of  this 
act  shall  make  a  record  thereof  in  their  proceedings,  and  text-books 
once  adopted  under  the  provisions  of  this  !u:t  shall  not  be  changed 
veithin  five  years,  except  by  the  consent  of  a  majority  of  qualified 
voters  of  the  district  present  at  an  annual  meeting.  The  district  board 
shall  require  each  teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  such  district,  before 
placing  the  school  register  in  the  hands  of  the  director  as  provided  in 
sec.  13  of  this  act,  to  certify  therein  whether  or  not  instruction  has 
been  given  in  the  school  or  grade  presided  over  by  such  teacher,  as 
required  by  this  act,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  director  of  the  dis- 
trict to  file  with  the  township  clerk  a  certified  copy  of  such  certificate. 
Any  school  board  neglecting  or  refusing  to  comply  with  any  of  the 
provisions  of  this  act  shall  be  subject  to  fine  or  forfeiture,  the  same  as 
neglect  of  any  other  duty  pertaining  to  their  office.  This  act  shall 
apply  to  all  schools  in  the  State,  including  schools  in  cities  or  villages, 
whether  incorporated  under  special  charter  or  under  the  general  laws. 
[This  law  was  approved  June  9,  1887,  and  is  act  165  of  the  laws  of 
that  year.  It  may  also  be  found  in  the  Compiled  Laws  of  Michigan, 
1897.  Act  108,  laws  of  1893,  approved  May  24,  1893,  —  sections 
8426-8453  of  the  Compiled  Laws  of  Michigan,  —  provides  for  the  or- 
ganization of  corporations  to  instruct  in  the  treatment  of  disease  and 
in  hygiene.] 

MINNESOTA. 

Act  approved  March  1,  1897.  General  Laws,  1887,  ch.  123  (Gen- 
eral Statutes,  1894,  sees.  3892-3896). 

Sec.  1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  boards  of  education,  and  trustees 
in  charge  of  schools,  and  educational  institutions  supported  in  whole  or 
in  part  by  public  funds,  to  make  provision  for  systematic  and  regular 
instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  including  special  reference  to 
the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system. 

Sec.  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  teachers  in  public  schools  of  the 
State  to  give  systematic  and  regular  instruction  in  physiology  and 
hygiene,  including  special  reference  to  the  efilects  of  stimulants  and 
narcotics  upon  the  human  system  ;  and  any  neglect  or  refusal  on  the 
part  of  such  teachers  to  provide  instruction  as  aforesaid  shall  be 
deemed  sufficient  cause  for  annulling  his  or  her  certificate  by  the 
county  superintendent  or  other  competent  officer. 

Sec.  3.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  of  this  State  after  January  1,  1888,  who  has  not  passed 
a  satisfactory  examination   in  physiology  and   hj'giene,  with   special 


PHYSIOLQGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  109 

reference  to  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human 
system. 

Sec.  4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  county  superintendent  of  schools 
to  report  to  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  any  failure  or 
neglect  on  the  part  of  any  board  of  education  or  trustees  of  a  school  or 
institution  receiving  aid  in  whole  or  in  part  from  the  State,  to  make  pro- 
vision for  the  instruction  aforesaid,  and  such  failure  or  neglect  being 
satisfactorily  proven  by  the  county  superintendent  or  by  other  persons, 
it  shall  be  sufficient  warrant  upon  which  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  may  withhold  the  apportionment  of  the  current  school  fund 
from  such  district ;  provided,  that  not  more  than  one  fourth  of  said 
apportionment  shall  be  withheld  upon  the  first  offense,  one  third  upon 
the  second,  and  one  half  upon  any  subsequent  offense. 

Sec.  5.  The  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  the  presidents 
of  the  normal  schools  of  this  State  are  directed  to  recommend  some 
suitable  text-book,  and  to  furnish  the  same  at  cost  to  the  several  school 
districts  of  this  State,  for  the  study  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  with 
special  reference  to  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the 
human  system. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Annotated  Code,  1892,  ch.  119. 

Sec.  4019.  The  branches  of  study  upon  which  teachers  are  required 
to  be  examined  constitute  the  curriculum  of  the  free  public  schools. 

Sec.  4022.  To  obtain  a  first  grade  license,  the  applicant  must  be 
examined  on  spelling,  reading,  practical  and  mental  arithmetic,  ge- 
ography, English  grammar  and  composition.  United  States  history, 
history  of  Mississippi,  elements  of  natural  philosophy,  civil  govern- 
ment, elements  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to 
the  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system  ;  and  to  ob- 
tain a  second  grade  license,  the  applicant  must  be  examined  on  spell- 
ing, reading,  mental  arithmetic,  practical  arithmetic,  elementary  ge- 
ographj',  elementary  English  grammar  and  corajjosition,  and  ])rimary 
United  States  history,  and  primary  physiology,  with  special  reference 
to  the  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system  ;  but  a 
teacher  qualified  shall  not  be  refused  a  certificate  to  teach  for  the  next 
two  years  by  reason  of  a  want  of  sufficient  knowledge  on  the  subject 
of  physiology. 

Sec.  4023.  To  obtain  a  third  grade  license  the  applicant  must  be 
examined  on  the  subjects  required  for  second  grade,  and  must  make 
thereon  an  average  of  not  less  than  sixty  per  centum,  with  not  less 
than  forty  per  centum  on  any  subject. 


110  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Revised  Statutes,  1899. 

Sec.  9798.  No  person  shall  be  granted  a  certificate  to  teach  in  any 
of  the  public  schools  established  under  the  provisions  of  this  chapter 
■who  is  not  of  good  moral  character,  and  qualified  to  teach  .  .  .  phy- 
siology and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the  efBects  of  alcoholic 
drinks  and  stimulants  and  narcotics  generally  upon  the  human  system. 

Sec.  9799.  Physiology  and  hygiene,  including  their  several  branches, 
with  special  instruction  as  to  the  effect  of  alcoholic  drinks,  narcotics, 
and  stimulants  on  the  human  system,  shall  constitute  a  part  of  the 
course  of  instruction,  and  be  taught  in  all  schools  supported  wholly  or 
in  part  by  public  money,  or  under  state  control. 

[See  act  approved  April  2,  1885,  Laws  of  1885,  243;  Revised 
Statutes,  1889,  sees.  8023,  8024 ;  and  act  approved  March  19,  1897, 
Laws  of  1897,  233.] 

MONTAifA. 

Act  approved  March  11,  1895,  found  at  sec.  1861  of  the  Montana 
Political  Code. 

All  common  schools  shall  be  taught  in  the  English  language,  and  in- 
struction shall  be  given  in  the  following  branches,  viz. :  .  .  .  physi- 
ology and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic 
stimulants  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system,  history  of  the  United 
States,  civics  of  the  United  States  and  of  Montana.  Attention  must 
be  given  during  the  entire  school  course  to  the  cultivation  of  manners, 
to  the  laws  of  health,  physical  exercise,  ventilation  and  temperature  of 
the  school-room. 

NEBRASKA. 

Ch.  83,  Laws  of  1885  (Compiled  Statutes,  1899,  sees,  4760,  4761). 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  Nebraska  :  — 

Sec.  1.  Provision  shall  be  made  by  tlie  proper  local  school  author- 
ities for  instructing  the  pupils  in  all  the  schools  supported  by  public 
money,  or  under  state  control,  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special 
reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  stimulants  and 
narcotics  upon  the  human  system. 

Sec.  2.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  State  of  Nebraska,  after  the  first  day  of  Janu- 
ary, 1886,  who  has  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  physiology 
and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks 
and  other  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system. 

Sec.  3.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  this  act  are 
hereby  repealed. 

Approved  March  5,  1885. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  Ill 


Statutes,  1895,  page  81,  approved  March  12  of  that  year. 

See.  4.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  board  shall  be  as  follows  :  First, 
to  describe  and  cause  to  be  adopted  a  uniform  series  of  text-books  in 
the  princij)al  studies  pursued  in  the  public  schools,  to  wit :  .  .  .  ])hysi- 
ology  and  drawing.  Special  prominence  shall  be  given  in  all  public 
schools  to  the  effect  of  alcoholic  stimulants  and  of  narcotics  upon  the 
human  system. 

NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 

Revised  Statutes,  ch.  92,  sec.  6  ;  as  amended  by  ch.  40  (March  13) 
and  ch.  50  (March  19)  of  the  Session  Laws  of  1895.  This  law 
was  passed  in  1887.     Ch.  52,  sec.  1,  of  the  laws  of  that  year. 

The  School  Board,  Duties  of  :  — 

They  shall  prescribe  in  all  mixed  schools  and  all  graded  schools 
above  primary,  the  studies  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  having  special 
reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  stimulants  and  of  narcotics  upon 
the  human  system,  and  shall  see  that  the  studies  so  prescribed  are 
thoroughly  taught  in  said  schools,  and  that  well  approved  text-booka 
upon  the  subjects  are  furnished  to  teachers  and  scholars.  .  .  .  Candi- 
dates shall  be  examined  in  the  studies  prescribed  by  law,  or  by  the 
school  board  in  accordance  with  law. 

Ch.  94,  sec.  2,  of  the  Revised  Statutes  as  amended  by  ch.  35  of 
the  laws  of  1895  :  — 

The  superintendent  of  public  instruction  .  .  .  shall  investigate  the 
condition  and  the  efficacy  of  the  system  of  public  education  in  the 
State,  especially  in  relation  to  the  amount  and  character  of  instruction 
given  to  the  study  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  having  special  reference 
to  the  effect  of  alcoholic  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human 
S}'stem,  and  shall  recommend  to  the  school  boards  what  he  considers 
the  best  text-books  upon  those  subjects,  and  suggest  to  them  the  best 
mode  of  teaching  them,  and  he  shall  pursue  such  a  course  for  the 
purpose  of  awakening  and  guiding  public  sentiment  in  relation  thereto 
as  may  to  him  seem  best. 

NEW   JERSEY. 

Public  Laws  of  1894,  page  119,  approved  April  24,  1894  (General 
Statutes,  page  3050,  sees.  208-214). 

A  supplement  to  an  act  entitled  "  An  act  to  establish  a  system  of 
public  instruction." 

1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  General  Assembly  of  the  State 
of  New  Jersey,  That  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and 


112  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

special  instruction  as  to  their  effects  upon  the  human  system,  in  con- 
nection with  the  several  divisions  of  the  subject  of  physiology  and 
hygiene,  shall  be  included  in  the  branches  of  study  taught  in  the  com- 
mon or  public  schools,  and  shall  be  studied  and  taught  as  thoroughly 
and  in  the  same  manner  as  other  like  required  branches,  with  adequate 
tests  of  the  efficiency  of  the  teaching,  by  the  use  of  graded  text-books 
in  the  hands  of  pupils  where  other  branches  are  thus  studied,  and 
orally  only  in  the  case  of  pupils  unable  to  read,  and  by  all  pupils  in 
aU  grades  of  all  scliools  sujiported  wholly  or  in  part  by  public  money. 

2.  And  be  it  enacted.  That  the  space  in  the  text-books  devoted  to 
the  consideration  of  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and 
their  effects  upon  the  human  system  shall  be  sufficient  for  a  full  and 
adequate  treatment  of  the  subject. 

3.  And  be  it  enacted,  That  no  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any 
person  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of  New  Jersey,  after  January 
first  next,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  ninety-five,  who  has  not 
passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with 
special  reference  to  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics 
and  their  effects  upon  the  human  system. 

4.  And  be  it  enacted.  That  in  order  to  carry  into  effect  the  pro- 
visions of  this  supplement  each  district  shall,  in  the  manner  now  pro- 
vided by  law,  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  July  next,  adopt  a  graded 
series  of  text-books  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this  supple- 
ment. 

5.  And  be  it  enacted,  That  the  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction shall,  immediately  after  the  passage  of  this  supplement, 
notify  all  boards  of  education,  boards  of  school  trustees,  or  other 
bodies  having  charge  and  control  of  public  schools,  of  the  provisions 
of  this  supplement,  and  particularly  call  their  attention  to  their  duty 
in  enforcing  the  same. 

6.  And  be  it  enacted.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  city  and 
county  superintendents  to  report  to  the  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  whether  the  provisions  of  this  act  have  been  complied 
with,  as  specified  in  the  preceding  sections ;  and  any  refusal  thus  re- 
ported, or  otherwise  satisfactorily  proven,  shall  be  deemed  sufficient 
cause  for  withholding  the  state  appropriation  of  school  money  from 
sucli  district  or  districts  until  such  district  or  districts  have  fully  com- 
plied with  the  provisions  of  this  supplement. 

7.  And  be  it  enacted,  Tliat  this  act  shall  apply  to  all  schools  in  this 
State  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  money  received  from  the  State, 
whether  such  schools  are  governed  by  the  act  to  which  this  is  a  sup- 
plement or  by  any  special  law,  or  the  provisions  contained  in  the 
charter  of  any  city,  town,  borough,  or  other  municipality,  and  that 
this  act  shall  take  effect  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  school  year. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  113 

Act  approved  March  23,  1900.    Laws  of  1900,  ch.  96. 

Sec.  259.  The  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and  their  ef- 
fects upon  the  human  system  shall  he  taught  in  all  schools  supported 
wholly  or  in  part  by  public  moneys  as  thoroughly  and  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  other  like  branches  shall  be  taught,  by  the  use  of  graded  text- 
books in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  when  other  branches  shall  be  thus 
taught  and  orally  only  in  the  case  of  pupils  unable  to  read.  In  the  text- 
books on  physiology  and  hygiene  the  space  devoted  to  the  consideration 
of  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and  their  effects  upon  the 
human  system  shall  be  sufficient  for  a  full  and  adequate  treatment  of 
the  subject.  The  failure  or  refusal  of  any  district  to  comply  with  the 
provisions  of  this  section  shall  be  sufficient  cause  for  withholding  from 
such  district  the  state  appropriation. 

Sec.  260.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  to  teach  in 
the  public  schools,  except  to  persons  applying  for  special  certificates  to 
teach  music,  drawing,  manual  training,  or  other  subjects  not  included 
in  the  usual  school  curriculum,  who  shall  not  have  passed  a  satisfactory 
examination  in  physiology  and  hygiene  with  special  reference  to  the 
nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and  their  effects  upon  the 
human  system. 

NEW  TOKK. 

Laws  of  1884,  ch.  30. 

See.  1.  Provision  shall  be  made  by  the  proper  local  authorities  for 
instructing  all  pupils  in  all  schools  supported  by  public  money,  or 
under  state  control,  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference 
to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  upon  the 
human  system. 

Sec.  2.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  State  of  New  York  after  the  first  day  of  January, 
eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-five,  who  has  not  passed  a  satisfactory 
examination  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  vrith  special  reference  to  the 
effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  upon  the  human 
system. 

Act  approved  May  26,  1896.     Laws  of  1896,  ch.  901. 

The  people  of  the  State  of  New  York,  represented  in  Senate  and 
Assembly,  do  enact  as  follows  :  — 

Sec.  1.  Sections  nineteen  and  twenty  of  article  six  of  title  fifteen  of 
chapter  five  hundred  and  fifty-six  of  the  laws  of  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety-four,  known  as  the  consolidated  school  law,  as  amended  by 
chapter  one  thousand  and  forty-one  of  the  laws  of  eighteen  hundred 
and  ninety -five,  are  hereby  amended  to  read  as  follows :  — 

19.  The  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics  and  their 


114  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

effects  on  the  human  system  shall  be  taught  in  connection  with  the 
various  divisions  of  physiology  and  hygiene  as  thoroughly  as  are  other 
branches  in  all  schools  under  state  control,  or  supported  wholly  or  in 
part  by  public  money  of  the  State,  and  also  in  all  schools  connected 
with  reformatory  institutions. 

All  pupils  in  the  above-mentioned  schools  below  the  second  year  of 
the  high  school  and  above  the  third  year  of  school  work,  computing 
from  the  beginning  of  the  lowest  primary,  not  kindergarten,  year,  or 
in  corresponding  classes  of  ungraded  schools,  shall  be  taught  and  shall 
study  this  subject  every  year  with  suitable  text-books  in  the  hands  of 
the  pupils,  for  not  less  than  three  lessons  a  week  for  ten  or  more 
weeks,  or  the  ecjuivalent  of  the  same  in  each  year,  and  must  pass  satis- 
factory tests  iu  this  as  in  other  studies  before  promotion  to  the  next 
succeeding  year's  work ;  except  that,  where  there  are  nine  or  more 
school  years  below  the  high  school,  the  study  may  be  omitted  in  all 
years  above  the  eighth  year  and  below  the  high  school,  by  such  pupils 
as  have  passed  the  required  tests  of  the  eighth  year. 

In  all  schools  above  mentioned,  all  pupils  in  the  lowest  three  pri- 
mary, not  kindergarten,  school  years  or  in  corresponding  classes  of  un- 
graded schools,  shall  each  year  be  instructed  in  this  subject  orally  for 
not  less  than  two  lessons  a  week  for  ten  weeks,  or  the  equivalent  of 
the  same  in  each  year  by  teachers  using  text-books  adapted  for  such 
oral  instruction  as  a  guide  and  standard,  and  such  pupils  must  pass 
such  tests  in  this  as  may  be  required  in  other  studies  before  promo- 
tion to  the  next  succeeding  year's  work.  Nothing  in  this  act  shall  be 
construed  as  prohibiting  or  requiring  the  teaching  of  this  subject  in 
kindergarten  schools. 

The  local  school  authorities  shall  provide  needed  facilities  and  defi- 
nite time  and  place  for  this  branch  in  the  regular  courses  of  study. 

The  text-books  in  the  pupils'  hands  shall  be  graded  to  the  capacities 
of  fourth  year,  intermediate,  grammar,  and  high  school  pupils,  or  to 
corresponding  classes  in  ungraded  schools. 

For  students  below  high  school  grade  such  text-books  shall  give  at 
least  one  fifth  their  space,  and  for  students  of  high  school  grade  shall 
give  not  less  than  twenty  pages  to  the  nature  and  efi'ects  of  alcoholic 
drinks  and  other  narcotics.  This  subject  must  be  treated  in  the  text- 
books in  connection  with  the  various  divisions  of  physiology  and  hy- 
giene, and  pages  on  this  subject  in  a  separate  chapter  at  the  end  of 
the  book  shall  not  be  counted  in  determining  the  minimum. 

No  text-book  on  physiology  not  conforming  to  this  act  shall  be  used 
in  the  public  schools  except  so  long  as  may  be  necessary  to  fulfill  the 
conditions  of  any  legal  adoption  existing  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of 
this  act. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  115 

All  regents'  examinations  in  physiology  and  hygiene  shall  include 
a  due  proportion  of  questions  on  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and 
other  narcotics,  and  their  effects  on  the  human  system. 

20.  In  all  normal  schools,  teachers'  training  classes,  and  teachers' 
institutes,  adequate  time  and  attention  shall  be  given  to  instruction 
in  the  best  methods  of  teaching  this  branch,  and  no  teacher  shall  be 
licensed  who  has  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  subject, 
and  the  best  methods  of  teaching  it. 

On  satisfactory  evidence  that  any  teacher  has  willfully  refused  to 
teach  this  subject,  as  provided  in  this  act,  the  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  shall  revoke  the  license  of  such  teacher. 

No  public  money  of  the  State  shall  be  apportioned  by  the  state  su- 
perintendent of  public  instruction  or  paid  for  the  benefit  of  any  city 
until  the  superintendent  of  schools  therein  shall  have  filed  with  the 
treasurer  or  chamberlain  of  such  city  an  aiBdavit,  and  with  the  state 
superintendent  of  public  schools  a  duplicate  of  such  affidavit,  that  he 
has  made  thorough  investigation  as  to  tlie  facts,  and  that  to  the  best 
of  his  knowledge,  information,  and  belief,  all  the  provisions  of  this  act 
have  been  complied  with  in  all  the  schools  under  his  supervision  in 
such  city  during  the  last  preceding  legal  school  year  ;  nor  shall  any 
public  money  of  the  State  be  apportioned  by  the  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  or  by  school  commissioners,  or  paid  for  the 
benefit  of  any  school  district,  until  the  president  of  the  board  of 
trustees,  or  in  the  case  of  common  school  districts  the  trustee  or  some 
one  member  of  the  board  of  trustees,  shall  have  filed  with  the  school 
commissioners  having  jurisdiction  an  affidavit  that  he  has  made  thor- 
ough investigation  as  to  the  facts,  and  that  to  the  best  of  his  know- 
ledge, information,  and  belief,  all  the  provisions  of  this  act  have  been 
complied  with  in  such  district,  which  affidavit  shall  be  included  in  the 
trustees'  annual  report,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  school  com- 
missioner to  file  with  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  an 
affidavit  in  connection  with  his  annual  report,  showing  all  districts  in 
his  jurisdiction  that  have  not  complied  with  all  provisions  of  this  act, 
according  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge,  information,  and  belief,  based 
on  a  thorough  investigation  by  him  as  to  facts  ;  nor  shall  any  public 
money  of  the  State  be  apportioned  or  paid  for  the  benefit  of  any 
teachers'  training  class,  teachers'  institute,  or  other  school  mentioned 
herein  until  the  officer  having  jurisdiction  or  supervision  thereof  shall 
have  filed  with  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  an  affi- 
davit that  he  has  made  thorough  investigation  as  to  the  facts,  and  that 
to  the  best  of  his  knowledge,  information,  and  belief,  all  the  provisions 
of  this  act  relative  thereto  have  been  complied  with. 

The  principal  of  each  normal  school  in  the  State  shall  at  the  close 


116  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

of  each  of  their  school  years  file  with  the  state  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction  an  affidavit  that  all  the  provisions  of  this  law  applicable 
thereto  have  been  complied  with  during  the  school  year  just  termi- 
nated, and  until  such  affidavit  shall  be  filed  no  warrant  shall  be  issued 
by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  for  the  payment  by 
the  treasurer  of  any  part  of  the  money  appropriated  for  such  school. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
to  provide  blank  forms  of  affidavit  required  herein  for  use  by  the 
local  school  officers,  and  he  shall  include  in  his  annual  report  a  state- 
ment showing  every  school,  city,  or  district  which  has  failed  to  com- 
ply with  all  the  provisions  of  this  act  during  the  preceding  school  year. 

On  complaint  by  appeal  to  the  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction by  any  patron  of  the  schools  mentioned  in  the  last  preceding 
section,  or  by  any  citizen,  that  any  provision  of  this  act  has  not  been 
complied  with  in  any  city  or  district,  the  state  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction  shall  make  immediate  investigation,  and  on  satisfactory 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  such  comi)laint,  shall  thereupon  and  thereafter 
withhold  all  public  money  of  the  State,  to  which  such  city  or  district 
would  otherwise  be  entitled,  until  all  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be 
complied  with  in  said  city  or  district,  and  shall  exercise  his  power  of 
reclamation  and  deduction  under  section  nine  of  article  one  of  title 
two  of  the  consolidated  school  law. 

Sec.  2.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 

NORTH    CAEOLINA. 

Laws  of  1891,  ch.  169. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the 
State  of  North  Carolina  in  Legislature  assembled  :  — 

Sec.  1.  That  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and  spe- 
cial instruction  as  to  their  effects  upon  the  human  system,  in  connec- 
tion with  tlie  several  divisions  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  shall  be  in- 
cluded in  the  branches  of  study  taught  in  the  common  or  public  schools 
in  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  and  shall  be  studied  and  taught  as 
thoroughly  and  in  the  same  manner  as  other  like  required  branches 
are  in  said  schools  by  the  use  of  text-books  in  the  hands  of  pupils 
where  other  branches  are  thus  studied  in  said  schools,  and  orally  in 
the  case  of  pupils  unable  to  read,  and  shall  be  taught  by  all  teachers 
and  studied  by  all  pupils  in  all  said  schools  supported  wholly  or  in 
part  by  public  money. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  text-books  used  for  the  instruction  required  to  be 
given  in  the  preceding  section  in  primary  and  intermediate  grades 
shall  give  at  least  one  fourth  their  space  to  the  consideration  of  the 
nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  ;  and  the  books 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  117 

used  in  the  highest  grade  of  graded  schools  shall  contain  at  least  twenty 
pages  of  matter  relating  to  the  subject. 

Sec.  3.  That  no  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  to  teach 
in  the  public  schools  of  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  after  the  first  day 
of  January,  Anno  Domini  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-two,  who  has 
not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  ph3'siology  and  hygiene,  with 
special  reference  to  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics 
and  their  effects  upon  the  human  system. 

Sec.  4.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  proper  officers  in  control  of 
anj'  school  described  in  the  foregoing  section  to  enforce  the  provisions 
of  this  act ;  and  any  such  officer,  school  director,  committee,  super- 
intendent, or  teacher  who  shall  refuse  or  neglect  to  comply  with  the 
requirements  of  this  act,  or  shall  neglect  or  fail  to  make  proper  pro- 
visions for  the  instructions  required  and  in  the  manner  specified  by 
the  first  section  of  this  act  for  all  pupils  in  each  and  everj'  school 
under  his  jurisdiction,  shall  be  removed  from  office,  and  the  vacancy 
filled  as  in  other  cases. 

Sec.  5.  This  act  shall  be  in  force  and  effect  from  and  after  the  first 
day  of  August,  1891. 

Ratified  February  27,  1891. 

NORTH   DAKOTA. 

Revised  Codes  of  North  Dakota,  1895. 

Sec.  750.  Each  teacher  in  the  common  schools  shall  teach  pupils, 
when  they  are  sufficiently  advanced  to  pursue  the  same,  the  following 
branches  :  .  .  .  physiology  and  hygiene,  giving  special  instruction  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics,  and 
their  effect  upon  the  human  system  ;  physiology  and  hygiene  and  the 
nature  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics,  and  their  effect 
upon  the  human  system,  shall  be  taught  as  thoroughly  as  any  branch 
is  taught,  by  the  use  of  a  text-book  to  all  pupils  able  to  use  a  text-book, 
who  have  not  thoroughly  studied  that  branch,  and  orally  to  all  otlier 
pupils.  When  such  oral  instruction  is  given  as  herein  required  a 
sufficient  time,  not  less  than  fifteen  minutes,  shall  be  given  to  such  oral 
instruction  for  at  least  four  days  in  each  scliool  week.  Each  teacher 
in  the  special  school  districts,  and  in  the  cities  organized  for  school 
purposes  under  special  law,  shall  conform  to  and  be  governed  by  the 
provisions  of  this  section. 

Sec.  648.  He  [the  county  superintendent  of  schools]  shall  see  that  the 
pupils  are  instructed  in  the  several  branches  of  study  required  by  law 
to  be  taught  in  the  schools,  as  far  as  they  are  qualified  to  ])ursue  them. 
If  any  teacher  neglects  or  refuses  to  give  instruction  as  required  by 
law  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  the  nature  and  effect  of  alcoholic 


118  THE   LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

drinks,  narcotics,  and  stimulants,  the  county  superintendent  shall 
promptly  revoke  such  teacher's  certificate  and  cause  him  to  be  dis- 
charged. If  the  teacher  so  neglecting  or  refusing  to  give  instruction 
in  said  branches  holds  a  state  certificate,  the  county  superintendent 
shall  immediately  certify  .such  refusal  or  neglect  to  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction. 

[Laws  of  1890,  cli.  62,  sees.  29,  130 ;  approved  March  20,  1890.] 

OHIO. 

Act  passed  April  13,  1888.     85  Laws,  page  213. 

Sec.  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Ohio, 
Tliat  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and  their  effects 
upon  the  human  system  in  connection  with  the  subjects  of  physiology 
and  liygiene,  shall  be  included  in  the  branches  to  be  regularly  taught 
in  the  common  schools  of  the  State,  and  in  all  educational  institutions 
supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  money  received  from  the  State ;  and 
it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  boards  of  education,  and  boards  of  such 
educational  institutions,  to  make  provisions  for  such  instruction  in  the 
schools  and  institutions  under  their  jurisdictions,  and  to  adopt  such 
metliods  as  shall  adapt  the  same  to  the  capacity  of  the  pupils  in 
the  various  grades  therein  ;  but  it  shall  be  deemed  a  sufficient  compli- 
ance with  the  requirements  of  this  section  if  provision  be  made  for 
such  instruction  orally  only,  and  without  the  use  of  text-books  by  the 
pupils. 

Sec.  2.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  on  or  after  the 
first  day  of  January,  1890,  to  teach  in  the  common  schools,  or  in  any 
educational  institution  supported  wholly  or  in  part  as  aforesaid,  who 
does  not  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  as  to  the  nature  of  alcoholic 
drinks  and  narcotics,  and  their  effect  upon  the  human  system. 

Sec.  3.  Any  superintendent  or  principal  of,  or  teacher  in  any  com- 
mon school  or  educational  institution  supported  as  aforesaid,  who  will- 
fully refuses  or  neglects  to  give  the  instruction  required  by  this  act, 
shall  be  dismissed  from  his  or  her  employment. 

Sec.  4.  This  act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  the 
first  day  of  January,  1889. 

[Sees.  8092-33,  34,  and  35  in  Revised  Statutes,  1890.  See,  also, 
sec.  4074  as  to  teachers'  certificates ;  and  sec.  4020  as  to  the  authority 
of  boards  of  education  as  to  studies  and  text-books.] 


Hill's  Annotated  Laws  of  Oregon,  sec.  2649  (Statutes  of  1885, 115, 
passed  February  25,  1885). 

A  teacher's  duty  while  in  charge  of  the  school  shall  be  as  follows  : 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  119 

.  .  .  Third  :  To  labor  during  school  hours  to  advance  the  pupils  in 
their  studies  ;  to  create  in  their  minds  a  desire  for  knowledge,  prin- 
ciple, morality,  politeness,  cleanliness,  and  the  preservation  of  physical 
health  ;  and  it  is  hereby  made  the  duty  of  every  teacher  to  give,  and 
of  every  board  of  school  directors  to  cause  to  be  given,  to  all  pupils 
suitable  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference 
to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  narcotics,  and  stimulants  upon  the 
human  system. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Act  approved  April  2,  1885.     Laws  of  1885,  page  7. 

Sec.  1.  Be  it  enacted,  etc.,  That  physiology  and  hygiene,  which 
shall,  in  each  division  of  the  subject  so  pursued,  include  special  re- 
ference to  the  effect  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants  and  narcotics 
upon  the  human  system,  shall  be  included  in  the  branches  of  study 
now  required  by  law  to  be  taught  in  the  common  schools,  and  shall 
be  introduced  and  studied  as  a  regular  branch  by  all  pupils  in  all 
departments  of  the  public  schools  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  in  all 
educational  institutions  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  money  from 
the  Commonwealth. 

Sec.  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  county,  city,  borough  superintend- 
ents, and  boards  of  all  educational  institutions  receiving  aid  from  the 
Commonwealth,  to  report  to  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
any  failure  or  neglect  on  the  part  of  boards  of  school  directors,  boards 
of  school  controllers,  boards  of  education,  and  boards  of  educational  in- 
stitutions receiving  aid  from  the  Commonwealth  to  make  proper  pro- 
vision in  any  and  all  the  schools  or  districts  under  their  jurisdictions 
for  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene  which,  in  each  division  of 
the  subject  so  pursued,  gives  special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic 
drinks,  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system  as  required  by 
this  act ;  and  such  failures  on  the  part  of  directors,  controllers,  boards 
of  education,  and  boards  of  educational  institutions  receiving  money 
from  the  Commonwealth  thus  reported  or  otherwise  satisfactorily 
proven,  shall  be  deemed  sufficient  cause  for  withholding  the  warrant  for 
state  appropriation  of  school  money  to  which  such  district  or  educa- 
tional institution  would  otherwise  be  entitled. 

Sec.  3.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  any  person  to  teach  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  of  tlie  Commonwealth  or  in  any  of  the  educational  institu- 
tions receiving  money  from  the  Commonwealth,  after  the  first  Monday 
of  June,  Anno  Domini  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-six,  who 
has  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  physiology  and  hygiene, 
with  special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants  and 
other  narcotics  upon  the  human  system. 


120  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

RHODE   ISLAND. 

Ch.  60,  sec.  7,  of  the  General  Laws  (ch.  415,  sec.  1,  of  the  Laws  of 
1884,  passed  April  24,  1884). 

The  school  committees  of  the  several  towns  shall  make  provision  for 
the  instruction  of  the  pupils  in  all  schools  supported  wholly,  or  in  part, 
by  public  money,  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to 
the  effects  of  alcoholic  liquors,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  upon  the  hu- 
man system. 

SOUTH    CAKOLINA. 

Statutes  at  Large,  vol.  22,  sec.  27,  at  page  160  ;  approved  Mai'ch 
9,  1896. 

An  Act  to  declare  the  free  school  law  of  the  State. 

Sec.  27.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  county  board  of  education  and 
of  boards  of  trustees  hereinafter  provided  for  to  see  that  in  every 
school  under  their  care  there  shall  be  taught,  as  far  as  practicable,  .  .  . 
morals  and  good  behavior,  algebra,  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  es- 
pecially as  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  liquors  and  narcotics  upon  the 
human  system.   .  .  . 

SOUTH   DAKOTA. 

Act  approved  March  5,  1901.     Session  Laws,  1901,  ch.  113. 

Ch.  viii.  sec.  14  (page  177).  Instruction  shaU  be  given  in  the 
common  schools  of  the  State  in  the  following  branches,  in  the  several 
grades  in  which  they  may  be  required,  viz. :  .  .  .  .  physiology  and 
hygiene,  with  special  instruction  as  to  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks 
and  their  effect  upon  the  human  system.  ... 

[See  chap.  ii.  sec.  4,  of  the  same  statute  for  the  requirements  for 
teachers'  certificates.  For  earlier  acts,  see  Session  Laws,  1890,  ch. 
82,  and  Session  Laws,  1897,  ch.  57,  ch.  viii.  sec.  13.  See,  also. 
Session  Laws,  1901,  ch.  113,  ch.  xi.  sec.  30,  for  repeal  of  earlier  acts.] 

TENNESSEE. 

Acts  of  1895,  ch.  180,  sees.  1,  2,  3,  taking  effect  January  1,  1896 ; 
approved  May  14,  1895. 

Sec.  1.  Be  it  enacted,  etc..  That  in  addition  to  the  branches  in  which 
instruction  is  now  given  in  the  public  schools  of  this  State,  phj'siology 
and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks 
and  narcotics,  and  smoking  cigarettes,  and  their  effects  upon  the  hu- 
man system,  shall  also  be  taught  as  thoroughly  as  other  branches. 

Sec.  2.  That  this  shall  be  made  a  regular  course  of  study  for  all 
pupils  in  all  schools  supported  entirely  or  in  part  by  public  money. 

Sec.  3.  No  certificate  shall  be  granted  to  any  person  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  of  this  State  after  the  first  day  of  January,  1896,  wlio 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  121 

has  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  physiology  and  hygiene, 
with  special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics, 
and  cigarette  smoking  upon  the  human  system. 

[Code  of  Tennessee,  Annotated,  1896,  sees.  1455,  1456.] 


Revised  Statutes,  as  amended  by  the  twenty-sixth  Legislature  (Laws 
of  1899,  234,  326). 

Art.  3909a.  All  public  schools  in  this  State  shall  be  required  to  have 
taught  in  them  orthography,  .  .  .  physiology  and  hygiene,  including  the 
effects  of  alcoholic  stimulants  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system,  .  .  . 

Art.  3973b.  Teachers'  certificates  authorizing  the  holders  tliereof  to 
contract  and  teach  in  the  public  free  schools  of  this  State  shall  be  of 
three  kinds,  as  foUows  :  A  county  certificate,  to  be  valid  only  in  the 
county  in  which  it  is  issued  ;  a  city  certificate,  to  be  valid  only  in  the 
city  in  which  it  is  issued  ;  a  state  certificate,  to  be  valid  in  all  counties 
and  independent  districts  of  the  State. 

Art.  3974.  An  applicant  for  a  third  grade  certificate  shall  be  ex- 
amined in  spelling,  .  .  .  elementary  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  the 
laws  of  health,  with  special  reference  to  narcotics,  and  school  manage- 
ment and  methods  of  teaching.  (1)  An  applicant  for  a  second  grade 
certificate  shall  be  examined  in  the  subjects  prescribed  for  a  third 
grade  certificate,  and  in  addition  thereto,  in  United  States  history,  .  .  . 
physiology  and  hygiene,  and  physical  geography.  (2)  An  applicant 
for  a  first  grade  certificate  shall  be  examined  in  the  subjects  pre- 
scribed for  third  and  second  grade  certificates,  and  in  addition  thereto, 
in  physics,  .  .  .  and  the  effects  of  tobacco  and  alcoholic  intoxicants 
upon  the  human  system. 

[See  act  approved  May  20,  1893.  General  Laws  of  1893,  ch.  122, 
sees.  17,  65.] 

UTAH. 

Revised  Statutes. 

Sec.  1829.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  boards  of  education  and  trus- 
tees in  charge  of  schools  and  educational  institutions  supported  in 
whole  or  in  part  by  public  funds  to  make  provision  for  systematic  and 
regular  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  including  special  refer- 
ence to  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system. 

[This  section  is  a  part  of  ch.  49  of  the  Laws  of  Utah,  1897.  This 
act  was  approved  March  11,  1897.  A  similar  clause  was  enacted  by 
the  legislature  of  Utah  Territory,  March  13,  1890.] 


122  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

VIRGINIA. 

[In  Virginia,  although  a  regulation  of  the  board  of  education  re- 
quired instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  it  was  not  until  the 
winter  of  1901-1902  that  persistent  effort  has  secured  a  law  on  the 
statute  books.] 

Act  approved  January  24,  1900.  Acts  of  Assembly,  1899-1900, 
ch.  132. 

In  every  public  free  school  shall  be  taught  .  .  .  physiology  and 
hygiene.  ...  In  the  teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene  approved 
text-books  shall  be  used,  plainly  setting  forth  the  effects  of  alcohol 
and  other  narcotics  on  the  human  system ;  and  these  effects  shall  be 
as  fully  and  thoroughly  taught  as  other  branches  of  said  last-named 
subjects. 

VEEMONT. 

Statutes,  1894. 

Sec.  683.  In  every  town  there  shall  be  kept  for  at  least  twenty- 
eight  weeks  in  each  year,  at  the  expense  of  said  town,  by  a  teacher  or 
teachers  of  competent  ability  and  of  good  morals,  a  sufficient  number 
of  schools  for  the  instruction  of  all  the  children  who  may  legally  attend 
all  the  public  schools  therein ;  and  all  pupils  shall  be  thoroughly  in- 
structed in  .  .  .  elementary  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special 
reference  to  the  effect  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  on  the  human 
system.   .   .  . 

Sec.  822.  [Applies  to  school  districts.]  All  pupils  shall  be  thor- 
oughly Instructed  in  .  .  .   elementary  physiology  and  hygiene.  .  .  . 

[For  earlier  legislation  see  Acts  of  1886,  No.  33,  and  Acts  of  1888, 
No.  9,  sec.  95.] 

WASHINGTON. 

Laws  of  1897,  ch.  118. 

[The  basis  of  this  law  may  be  found  in  the  General  Statutes,  1891, 
at  sees.  810,  854,  and  855,  approved  March  27,  1890.] 

Sec.  58.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  teachers  to  endeavor  to  impress 
on  the  minds  of  their  pupils  the  principles  of  morality,  truth,  justice, 
temperance,  and  patriotism ;  to  teach  them  to  avoid  idleness,  profan- 
ity, and  falsehood  ;  to  instruct  them  in  the  principles  of  free  govern- 
ment, and  to  train  them  up  to  the  true  comprehension  of  the  rights, 
duty,  and  dignity  of  American  citizenship. 

Sec.  65.  All  common  schools  shall  be  taught  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, and  instruction  shall  be  given  in  the  following  branches,  viz. : 
Reading,  .  .  .  physiology  and  hygiene  with  special  reference  to  the 
effects  of  alcoholic  stimulants  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system,  his- 
tory of  the  United  States,  and  such  other  studies  as  may  be  prescribed 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTKUCTION.  123 

by  the  state  board  of  education.  Attention  must  be  given  during  tlie 
entire  course  to  the  cultivation  of  manners,  to  the  laws  of  health, 
physical  exercise,  ventilation  and  temperature  of  the  school-room,  and 
not  less  than  ten  minutes  each  week  must  be  devoted  to  the  systematic 
teaching  of  kindness  to  not  only  our  domestic  animals,  but  to  all  living 
creatures. 

Sec.  162.  Upon  complaint  in  writing  being  made  to  any  county 
superintendent  by  any  district  clerk,  or  by  any  head  of  family,  that 
the  board  of  directors  of  the  district  of  which  said  clerk  shall  hold  his 
office,  or  said  head  of  family  shall  reside,  have  failed  to  make  provi- 
sion for  the  teaching  of  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the  effects 
of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system, 
as  provided  in  this  act,  in  the  common  schools  of  such  district,  it  shall 
be  the  duty  of  such  county  superintendent  to  investigate  at  once  the 
matter  of  such  complaints,  and  if  found  to  be  true,  he  shall  immedi- 
ately notify  the  county  treasurer  of  the  county  in  which  such  school 
district  is  located,  and  after  the  receipt  of  such  notice,  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  such  county  treasurer  to  refuse  to  pay  any  warrants  drawn 
upon  him  by  the  board  of  directors  of  such  district  subsequent  to  the 
date  of  such  notice,  and  until  he  shall  be  notified  to  do  so  by  such 
county  superintendent.  AVhenever  it  shall  be  made  to  appear  to  such 
county  superintendent,  and  he  shall  be  satisfied,  that  the  board  of  di- 
rectors of  such  district  are  complying  with  the  provisions  of  said  sec- 
tion of  this  act,  and  are  causing  physiology  and  hygiene  to  be  taught 
in  the  public  schools  of  such  district  as  hereinbefore  provided,  he 
shall  notify  said  county  treasurer,  and  said  treasurer  shall  thereupon 
honor  the  warrants  of  said  board  of  directors. 

Sec.  163.  Any  county  superintendent  of  public  schools  who  shall 
refuse  or  fail  to  comply  with  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  section 
shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  one  hundred  dollars,  to  be  recovered  in 
a  civil  action  in  the  name  of  the  State  in  any  court  of  competent  juris- 
diction, and  the  sum  recovered  shall  go  into  the  state  school  fund ; 
and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  prosecuting  attorneys  of  the  several 
counties  of  the  State  to  see  that  the  provisions  of  this  section  are  en- 
forced. 

WEST   VIRGINIA. 

Acts  of  1887,  ch.  3. 

The  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and  special  instruction 
as  to  their  effects  upon  the  human  system,  in  connection  with  the  several 
divisions  of  the  subject  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  shall  be  included 
in  the  branches  of  study  taught  in  the  common  or  public  schools,  and 
shall  be  taught  as  thoroughly  and  in  the  same  manner  as  other  like 


124  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

required  branches  are  in  the  said  schools,  and  to  all  pupils  in  all  said 
schools  throughout  the  State. 
Approved  February  17,  1887. 

WISCONSIN. 

Statutes,  1898,  sec.  447a.     Ch.  327  of  the  Laws  of  1885. 

Provision  shall  be  made  by  the  proper  local  school  authorities  for 
instructing  all  pupils  in  all  schools  supported  by  public  money  or 
under  state  control,  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference 
to  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  system.  The 
text-books  used  in  giving  such  instruction  shall  have  the  joint  approval 
of  the  state  superintendent  and  the  state  board  of  health. 


Revised  Statutes,  1889. 

Sec.  612.  Physiology  and  hygiene,  which  shall  include  in  each 
division  of  the  subject  special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcohol  and 
narcotics  upon  the  human  system,  shall  be  included  in  the  branches 
taught  in  the  common  schools  of  the  State,  and  shall  be  introduced 
and  taught,  either  orally  or  by  text-book,  in  all  departments  of  the 
public  schools  above  the  second  primary  grade,  and  in  all  educational 
institutions  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  State.  (R.  S.  1887, 
sec.  3969.) 

Sec.  613.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  several  county  and  city  super- 
intendents of  schools  in  the  State,  and  of  the  secretary  of  the  board  of 
directors  of  all  other  educational  institutions  receiving  aid  from  the 
State,  to  report  to  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  any 
failure  or  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  any  school 
district,  or  the  board  of  directors  of  any  educational  institutions  receiv- 
ing aid  from  the  State,  to  make  proper  provision  for  the  teaching  of 
the  branches  mentioned  in  the  last  preceding  section  in  any  or  all  of 
the  schools  or  other  educational  institutions  under  their  charge,  or  over 
which  they  have  jurisdiction,  and  such  failure  on  the  part  of  the 
above  mentioned  officers,  so  reported  and  satisfactorily  proven,  shall 
be  deemed  sufficient  cause  for  withholding  the  warrant  for  the  district 
appropriation  of  school  money  to  which  such  school  district  or  educa- 
tional institution  would  otherwise  be  entitled.    (R.  S.  1887,  sec.  3970.) 

Sec.  615.  No  certificate  shall  be  hereafter  granted  to  any  person  to 
teach  in  the  schools  of  Wyoming  who  shall  not  pass  a  satisfactory 
examination  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the 
effects  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  upon  the  human 
system.     (R.  S.  1887,  sec.  3972.) 

[See  Session  Laws  of  Wyoming  Territory,  1886,  ch.  35.] 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  125 

TERRITOKIES. 
ARIZONA. 

Revised  Statutes,  1901. 

Sec.  2142.  Every  applicant  for  a  first  grade  territorial  certificate 
must  be  examined  by  written  and  oral  questions  in  .  .  .  physiology, 
hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic 
drinks  and  other  narcotics  and  stimulants  upon  the  human  system. 
.  .  .  Applicants  for  a  second  grade  certificate  shall  not  be  required  to 
pass  an  examination  in  algebra  or  natural  philosophy. 

Sec.  2214.  Instruction  must  be  given  in  the  following  branches, 
viz. :  .  .  .  elements  of  physiology,  hygiene,  including  the  nature  of 
alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and  special  instruction  as  to  their  effect 
upon  the  human  system.  .  .  . 

NEW   MEXICO. 

New  Mexico  has  no  such  law. 

OKLAHOMA. 

Statutes  of  Oklahoma. 

Sec.  5817.  Certificate  of  the  first  grade  shall  certify  that  a  person 
to  whom  issued  is  proficient  in,  and  fully  qualified  to  teach,  .  .  . 
physiology  and  hygiene.   .  .  . 

Sec.  5818.  Certificates  of  the  second  grade  may  be  issued  to  per- 
sons .  .  .  able  to  teach  all  branches  prescribed  for  first  grade  certifi- 
cate. .  .  . 

[AU  territories  are  governed  by  act  of  Congress  given  S7q)i-a.^ 


126 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Comparative  Table  of  Requirements  of  Scientijic  Temperance  Laws  in  the 

States  of  the  Union, 

Compiled  from  the  Laws  as  in  force  January  1,  189G. 


Alabama 

California.... 

Colorado 

Connecticut. . 
Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky . . . 

Lomaiana  — 

Maine 

Maryland  . . .  • 

Massachusetts 


Michigan. . . 

Minnesota. . 


Mississippi . 


General  provision 

similar  to  our 

'84  law. 

Same  as  other 


No  law. 
No  law. 


No  law. 
Similar  to  N.  Y. 


General  provision. 
General  provision. 


General  provision. 


General  provision. 


General  provisi 
General  provisi 


A8  a  repula 

brauch  in  a] 

grades. 


General  provision. 


Supt.  to  recom- 
mend suitable 
ones. 


One  fifth. 
20  pp. 


One  fourth. 
20  pp. 


Oral  instruc- 
tion to  pupils 
who  cannot 
read. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION. 

Comparative  Table  of  Requirements,  etc.  (continued). 


127 


Stats. 

Length  of  time 
study  pursued. 

Text-book 
required. 

Percentage 
of  matter  in 
text-book. 

Oral  instruc- 
tion of  pupils 
who  cannot 
read. 

hi 
III 

111 

Penalty. 

When  patrons  so 
desire  in  writing. 

No. 

Yes. 

General  provision. 

No. 

None. 

No. 

Yes. 

None. 

General  provision. 

Prescribed  by 
State  Board. 

No. 

Loss  of  pub- 
lic money. 

N.  Hampshire 

General  provision 
in  all  schools 
above  primary. 

No. 

No. 

New  Jersey  . . 

Alt  pupils.    All 
grades. 

Yes. 

Full  and 
adequate. 

Yea. 

Yes. 

Loss  of  pub- 
lic money. 

New  York.... 

All  pupils.    Each 
year.   10  weeks,  4 
lessons  per  week. 

Yes. 

One  fifth. 
20  pp. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Loss  of  pub- 
lic money. 

N.  Carolina  .. 

As  thoroughly  aa 
other  branches. 

Yea. 

One  fourth. 
20  pp. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Removal 

from  office. 

As  thoroughly  aa 
other  branches. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 

General  provision. 

General  provision. 

As  a  regular 
branch. 

No. 

Yes. 

Oregon 

PennBylvania. 

tion  suffi- 
cient in  all 
grades. 

No. 

No. 

Yes. 

Loss  of  pub- 
lic money. 

General  provision. 

As  thoroughly  as 
other  branches. 

No. 

So.  Carolina.. 

When  used  in 
other  branches. 

One  fourth. 
20  pp. 

Yea. 

No. 

Removal 

from  office. 

So.  Dakota. . . 

As  thoroughly  as 
arith.  and  geog. 

Yes. 

One  fourth. 
20  pp. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Lossofpub- 
Uc  money. 

As  thoroughly  as 
other  branches. 

No. 

Yes. 

Texaa 

General  provision. 

General  provision. 

No  general  law. 
Local  boards  may 
introduce  study. 

No. 

No. 

Virginia 

'Washington . . 

General  provision. 

No. 

No. 

Loss  of  pub- 
lic money. 

W.Virginia.. 

Aa  thoroughly  as 

other  branches and 

in  like  manner. 

Except  aa  before 

stated. 

Yes. 

from  office. 

Wsco  sin 

General  provision. 

Text-book  to  be 

approv'dbySupt. 
andB'dofHealth. 

No. 

None 

Wyoming  — 

All  schools  above 
2d  primary  grade. 

Optional,  with 
oral  instruction. 

Yes. 

lie  money. 

THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


CIRCULAR  LETTER  USED    IN    FIRST  CANVASS  OF  PUBLIC 
SCHOOLS.i 

To  School  Superintendents,  Principals,  Teachers,  and  School  Com- 
mittees of  Massachusetts. 

Your  attention  is  called  to  the  proposed  legislation  concerning  in- 
struction in  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  public  schools  of  Massachu- 
setts.    The  texts  are  here  given  of  — 

(1)  The  present  law. 

(2)  A  bill  introduced  into  the  Senate,  providing  for  the  greatly  in- 
creased stringency  of  the  present  law,  with  penalties  for  non-compli- 
ance with  the  same. 

(3)  A  bill  introduced  into  the  House  to  provide  for  such  instruction 
in  physiology  and  hygiene  as  has  been  concluded  by  a  conference  of 
teachers  and  physicians  to  be  adapted  to  promote  the  cause  of  temper- 
ance and  the  best  welfare  of  the  schools. 

Appended  is  a  statement  of  the  grounds  of  the  petition. 

The  Present  Law.     Statutes  of  1885,  Chapter  332. 

Section  1.  Physiology  and  hygiene,  which,  in  both  divisions  of  the 
subject,  shall  include  special  instruction  as  to  the  eilect  of  alcoholic 
drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system,  shall  be  taught 
as  a  regular  branch  of  study  to  all  pupils  in  all  schools  supported 
wholly  or  in  part  by  public  money,  except  special  schools  maintained 
solely  for  instruction  in  particular  branches,  such  as  drawing,  me- 
chanics, art,  and  like  studies.  All  acts  or  parts  of  acts  relating  to  the 
qualification  of  teachers  in  the  public  schools  shall  apply  to  the  branch 
of  study  prescribed  in  this  act. 

Sec.  2.  All  penalties  now  fixed  for  neglect  to  provide  instruction  in 
the  branches  of  study  now  prescribed  by  law  shall  apply  to  the  branch 
of  study  prescribed  in  section  1. 

Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  on  the  first  day  of  August,  in  the 
year  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-five. 

Bill  of  Charles  L.  Morgan  and  Mary  H.  Hunt,  Senate,  No.  41. 

[To  accompany  the  petition  of  Charles  L.  Morgan  and  Mary  H. 
Hunt  for  amendment  of  the  law  requiring  physiology  and  hygiene  to 
be  taught  in  the  public  schools  so  as  to  more  fully  define  the  schools 
in  which  it  shall  be  taught,  the  methods  of  instruction,  and  the  char- 
acter of  text-books ;  to  provide  penalties  for  non-compliance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  law ;  to  provide  for  the  supervision  of  the  in- 
'  See  Report,  p.  40. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  129 

struction  ;  and  to  provide  for  the  enforcement  of  the  law.     Educa- 
tion.] 

Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts.     In  the  year  One  Thousand  Eight 
Hundred  and  Ninety-nine. 

To  amend  the  Law  requiring  Physiology  and  Hygiene  to  be  taught 
in  the  Public  Schools. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  in  Gen- 
eral Court  assembled,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  as  follows  :  — 

Section  1.  Section  one  of  chapter  three  hundred  and  thirty-two  of 
laws  of  A.  D.  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-five  is  hereby  amended  so 
as  to  read  as  follows  :  — 

That  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  otlier  narcotics  and  their 
effects  on  the  human  system  shall  be  tauglit  in  connection  with  the 
several  divisions  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  as  thorouglily  as  are  other 
branches,  in  all  schools  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  public  money, 
including  all  evening  common  schools,  and  in  all  schools  connected 
with  reformatory  institutions. 

All  pupils  in  the  above-mentioned  schools  below  the  second  year  of 
the  high  schools  and  above  the  third  year  of  soliool  work,  computing 
from  the  beginning  of  the  lowest  primary  year,  or  in  corresponding 
classes  of  ungraded  schools,  shall  be  taught  and  shall  study  this  sub- 
ject every  year  from  suitable  text-books  in  the  hands  of  all  pupils,  in 
not  less  than  three  lessons  a  week  for  fourteen  or  more  weeks  of  each 
year,  and  must  pass  the  same  tests  for  promotion  in  this  as  in  other 
studies. 

In  all  such  schools  all  pupils  in  the  lowest  three  primary  school 
years,  or  in  corresponding  classes  in  ungraded  schools,  shall  each  year 
be  instructed  in  this  subject  orally  in  not  less  than  three  lessons  a  week 
for  ten  weeks  in  each  year  by  teachers  using  text-books  adapted  for 
such  oral  instruction  as  a  guide  and  standard. 

The  text-books  in  the  pupils'  hands  shall  be  graded  to  the  capacities 
of  the  fourth  year,  intermediate,  grammar,  and  high  school  pupUs,  or 
to  corresponding  classes  in  ungraded  schools. 

For  students  below  high  school  grade  such  text-books  shall  give  at 
least  one  fifth  their  space,  and  for  students  of  high  school  grade,  shall 
give  not  less  than  twenty  pages  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic 
drinks  and  other  narcotics.  The  pages  on  this  subject,  in  a  separate 
chapter  at  the  end  of  the  book,  shall  not  be  counted  in  determining 
the  minimum.  No  text-book  on  physiology  not  conforming  to  this  act 
shall  be  used  in  any  public  school  except  so  long  as  may  be  necessary  to 
fulfill  the  conditions  of  any  legal  adoption  existing  at  the  time  of  the 
passage  of  this  act. 


130  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

In  all  normal  schools,  teachers'  training  classes,  and  teachers'  insti- 
tutes ade(|uate  time  and  attention  shall  be  given  to  instruction  in  this 
branch  and  the  best  methods  of  teaching  it.  All  acts  or  parts  of  acts 
relating  to  the  qualifications  of  teachers  in  the  public  schools  shall 
apply  to  the  branch  of  study  prescribed  in  this  act. 

Nothing  in  this  act  shall  be  construed  to  apply  to  special  schools 
maintained  solely  for  instruction  in  particular  branches,  such  as  draw- 
ing, mechanics,  art,  and  like  studies. 

Section  2.  The  school  committee  of  all  cities  and  towns,  the  princi- 
pals of  all  normal  schools,  and  the  supervising  officers  in  all  schools 
connected  with  reformatory  institutions  shall  annually  provide  a  defi- 
nite time  and  place  in  the  regular  course  of  study  for  the  given  number 
of  lessons  in  this  branch  and  an  adequate  supply  of  text-books  for  the 
pupils'  use  as  required  by  this  act,  and  also  for  the  teachers'  use  for 
oral  instruction  in  primary  classes,  and  shall  cause  the  requirements  of 
this  act  to  be  complied  with  in  all  schools  under  their  jurisdiction,  and 
shall  file  with  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  an  affidavit 
that  all  the  provisions  of  this  act  have  been  complied  with. 

Any  of  the  aforesaid  officers  who  shall  neglect  or  fail  to  comply 
with  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  forfeit  and  pay  for  each 
offense  the  sum  of  not  less  than  five  dollars  and  not  more  than  twenty- 
five  dollars.  Failure  to  comply  with  all  the  provisions  of  this  act  on 
any  school  day  to  which  it  applies  shall  constitute  an  offense. 

At  the  opening  of  each  school  year  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  State  Board  of  Education  to  send  to  all  school  committees, 
principals  of  normal  schools,  and  supervising  officers  of  all  schools 
connected  with  reformatory  institutions,  blanks  containing  the  follow- 
ing questions :  — 

First.  Have  you  provided  a  definite  time  and  place  in  the  course  of 
study  in  the  schools  under  your  jurisdiction  for  three  lessons  per  week 
for  fourteen  weeks  per  year  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  which  include 
the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics  upon  the 

human  system  as  specified  in  section  one  of  Act ,  and  has  that 

study  been  pursued  by  all  pupils  in  all  schools  under  your  jurisdiction 
as  specified  by  that  act,  with  the  same  tests  for  promotion  as  in  other 
studies  ? 

Second.  Have  you  provided  text-books  on  the  foregoing  topics  that 
are  adapted  to  the  several  grades,  and  that  give  the  specified  space  to 
the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics  which 
the  law  demands  ? 

The  school  officers  to  whom  these  blanks  are  sent  shall  return  them 
at  the  close  of  the  school  year  to  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education  with  answers  filled  out  and  an  affidavit  that  they  have  made 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  131 

thorough  investigation  as  to  the  facts,  and  that  to  the  hest  of  their 
knowledge,  information,  and  behef,  these  questions  are  truthfully  an- 
swered, and  that  all  the  provisions  of  this  act  have  been  complied  with 
in  the  schools  under  their  jurisdiction  during  the  preceding  year. 

Any  failure  thus  reported  or  otherwise  satisfactorily  proven  shall  be 
deemed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  to  be  suffi- 
cient cause  to  compel  the  payment  by  such  delinquents  of  the  forfeit- 
ure specified  in  this  act. 

All  penalties  which  apply  to  the  failure  of  a  city  or  town  to  make 
other  returns  or  reports  to  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion shall  apply  to  failures  to  report  as  tpecified  by  this  act. 

The  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  shall  cause  all  the 
provisions  of  tliis  act  to  be  enforced,  and  shall  report  annually  to  the 
legislature  any  failure  to  comply  with  the  same. 

Trial  justices,  district,  municipal,  and  police  courts  shall  have  juris- 
diction of  offenses  under  this  act. 

Section  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  on  the  first  day  of  August,  in 
the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-nine. 

Bill  of  James  J.  Myers,  House,  No.  817. 
House  of  Representatives,  February  8,  1899.     [Introduced  on  leave 

by  Mr.  Myers  of  Cambridge.     Education.] 
Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  in  the  year  One  Thousand  Eight 
Hundred  and  Ninety-nine. 
An  Act  relative  to  Studies  in  the  Public  Schools, 
Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  in  Gen- 
eral Court  assembled,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  as  follows  :  — 
Section  1.  Section  one  of  chapter  three  hundred  and  thirty-two  of 
the  acts   of    the  year    eighteen    hundred    and    eighty-five    is    hereby 
amended   by   striking   out  in  the  fifth   line   thereof    the   words   "all 
schools,"  and  inserting  in  place  thereof  the  words  "  the  highest  grade  ^ 
of  aU  grammar  schools  and  in  one  grade  at  least  of  all  high  and  Latin 
schools,"  so  as  to  read  as  follows  :  — 

Sec.  1.  Physiology  and  hygiene,  which,  in  both  divisions  of  the 
subject,  shall  include  special  instruction  as  to  the  effects  of  alcoholic 
drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system,  shall  be  taught 
as  a  regular  branch  of  study  to  all  pupils  in  the  highest  grade '  of  all 
grammar  schools  and  in  one  grade  at  least  of  all  high  and  Latin 
schools  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  public  money,  except  special 
schools  maintained  solely  for  instruction  in  particular  branches,  such 
as  drawing,  mechanics,  art,  and  like  studies.  All  acts  or  parts  of  acts 
'  To  be  amended  to  read  "  the  fifth  and  highest  grades,"  etc. 


132  ■  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

relating  to  the  qualifications  of  teachers  in  the  public  schools  shall 
apply  to  the  brancli  of  study  prescribed  in  tliis  act. 

Sec.  2.  The  following  new  section  is  hereby  inserted  after  section 
one  of  said  chapter,  as  follows  :  — 

Sec.  2.  No  text-book  on  physiology  or  hygiene  shall  hereafter  be 
purchased  for  use  in  any  public  school  unless  it  has  been  approved  by 
the  chairman  and  secretary  of  the  state  board  of  health  and  by  the 
secretary  of  the  state  board  of  education. 

Sec.  3.  The  last  two  sections  of  the  said  chapter  are  hereby  renum- 
bered. 

Sec.  4.   This  act  shall  take  effect  upon  its  passage. 

AlS'    ANALYSIS   OF   THE  BILLS    NOW    PENDING. 

Senate  Bill  No.  41. 

Mrs.  Hunt's  bill  is  an  extremist's  definition  of  the  present  law.  Its 
purpose  is  "  more  fully  to  define  (1)  the  schools  in  which  physiology 
and  hygiene  shall  be  taught,  (2)  the  methods  of  instruction,  and  (3) 
the  character  of  text-books,  (4)  to  provide  the  penalties  for  non-com- 
pliance with  the  requirements  of  the  law,  (5)  to  provide  for  the  super- 
vision of  the  instruction,  and  (6)  to  provide  for  the  enforcement  of  the 
law." 

The  fundamental  objections  are  :  — 

(1)  Schools  (and  Geades).  Pupils  in  the  primary  and  lower 
grammar  grades  are  too  young  to  grasp  the  anatomical  and  physio- 
logical details  necessary  for  the  comprehension  of  the  physiological 
and  pathological  action  of  stimulants  and  narcotics. 

The  moral  effect  upon  pupils  is  lessened,  if  not  destroyed,  by  the 
repetition  of  a  comparatively  limited  number  of  statements  which  they 
have  neither  ability  to  understand  nor  opportunity  to  verify. 

(2)  Methods.  The  true  method  of  temperance  instruction  should 
emphasize  the  social  and  moral  aspects  of  the  question  and  avoid  so 
far  as  possible  physiological  and  pathological  details  unsuited  to  the 
comprehension  of  the  pupils. 

(3)  Text-Books.  The  text-books  provided  for  by  the  proposed 
law  devote  too  much  space  to  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics, 
while  other  equally  important  topics  of  hygiene,  such  as  food,  diet, 
sleep,  clothing,  cleanliness,  and  precautions  against  cold  and  wet  are 
given  too  little  attention. 

(4),  (5),  and  (6)  Penalties  and  Supervision.  The  penalties 
for  non-compliance  are  too  severe,  and  the  conditions  of  supervision 
of  instruction  are  unprecedented. 

An  inquisitional  system,  subverting  a  wholesome  relation  between 
school  officers  and  teachers,  is  inaugurated. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  133 

House  Bill  No.  817. 

The  bill  introduced  by  Mr.  Myers  proposes  (1)  to  have  instruction 
in  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  eighth  grade '  of  grammar  schools 
and  one  year  iu  high  schools,  and 

(2)  To  have  a  commission  consisting  of  the  chairman  and  secre- 
tary of  the  State  Board  of  Health  and  the  secretary  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  to  examine  the  books  used  for  the  purposes  of  this 
teaching  in  the  schools,  with  the  provision  that  no  book  shall  be  used 
which  has  not  received  the  sanction  of  this  commission. 

(1)  This  provision  for  instruction  insures  that  no  pupil  shall  leave 
the  schools  without  having  the  instruction ;  at  the  same  time  useless 
and  deading  repetition  is  avoided. 

(2)  The  examination  of  the  text-books  insures  good  text-books, 
suitable  because  of  accuracy  of  statement  and  adaptation  to  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  pupil.  It  also  protects  the  school  officers  and  teachers 
against  ill-considered  local  interference  in  the  performance  of  their 
functions. 

Petition. 

We,  the  undersigned,  because  of  our  interest  in  the  cause  of  tem- 
perance and  of  our  belief  that  the  failure  of  the  present  law  is  due  to 
too  much,  rather  than  too  little,  teaching  of  the  nature  and  effects  of 
stimulants  and  narcotics,  and  too  little  emphasis  on  the  moral  and 
social  aspects  of  the  question,  respectfully  petition  that  House  Bill  No. 
817  be  enacted  into  law  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
of  the  State  of  Massachusetts. 

A.  Lawrence  Lowell,  formerly  of  Boston  School  Committee. 
Prof.  W.  T.  Sedgwick,  Mass.  Institute  of  Technology. 

Prof.  H.  P.  Bowditch,  Harvard  Medical  School. 

Dr.  H.  P.  Walcott,  Chairman  State  Board  of  Health. 

Prof.  G.  W.  Fitz,  Harvard  University. 

A  Committee  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society  to  consider 

the  instruction  in  Physiology  and  Hygiene  in  the  public  schools  of 

the  State. 
Alice  Freeman  Palmer,  State  Board  of  Education. 
Charles  W.  Eliot,  President  of  Harvard  University. 
William  Lawrence,  Bishop  of  Massachusetts. 

George  Hodges,  Dean  of  the  Episcopal  Tlieological  School,  Cambridge. 
George  A.  Gordon,  Pastor  New  Old  South,  Boston. 
Frederick  Edwards,  Pastor  Episcopal  Cimrch,  Maiden. 
Prof.  Nathaniel  S.  Shaler,  Harvard  University. 

'  To  be  amended  to  read  "  in  the  fifth  and  eighth  grades." 


134  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Prof.  Paul  H.  Hanus,  History  and  Art  of  Teaching,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. 

Prof.  C.  F.  Hodge,  Clark  University. 

Dr.  Samuel  W.  Abbott,  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Health. 

Supt.  George  E.  Gay,  President  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Teachers' 
Association. 

S.  T.  Button,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Brookline. 

CIRCULAR  LETTER  USED  IN  SECOND  CANVASS  OF 
PUBLIC   SCHOOLS.! 

CAMBRmoE,  Mass.,  February  24,  1899. 
To  Superintendents  and  School  Committees  of  Massachusetts :  — 
This  blank  is  sent  to  you  to  get  an  expression  of  opinion  regarding  — 

(1)  Mrs.  Hunt's  modified  bill,  which  is  inclosed. 

(2)  Mr.  Myers's  bill,  with  the  understanding  that  the  instruction 
shall  be  given  in  the  fifth  and  eighth  grades  of  the  grammar  school 
and  in  one  year  of  the  high  school,  and  that  the  text-books  shall  be 
approved  as  provided  for. 

(3)  ]Mr.  Myers's  bill  modified  to  require  the  teaching  of  physiology 
and  hygiene  with  special  reference  to  personal  hygiene,  including  the 
nature  and  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system, 
to  every  pupil  in  the  schools,  but  leaving  the  decision  as  to  when  this 
instruction  shall  be  given,  and  the  choice  of  text-books,  to  the  local 
authorities,  so  that  they  may  make  their  programmes  suit  local  condi- 
tions. G.  W.  FiTZ,  M.  D., 

Sec.  of  the  Mass.  Jledical  Society   Committee, 

Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

MRS.  hunt's  modified  BILL. 
For  the  use  of  the  Committee  on  Education. 
[With  reference  to  the  petition  of  Charles  L.  Morgan  and  Mary  H.  Hunt 
for  amendments  of  the  law  requiring  physiology  and  hygiene  to  be  taught 
in  the  public  schools  so  as  to  more  fully  define  the  schools  in  which  it  shall 
be  taught,  the  methods  of  instruction,  and  the  character  of  text-books  ; 
to  provide  penalties  for  non-compliance  with  the  requirements  of  the  law  ; 
to  provide  for  the  supervision  of  the  instruction  ;  and  to  provide  for  the 
enforcement  of  the  law.] 

Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts.     In  the  year  One  Thousand  Eight 
Hundred  and  Ninety-nine. 
An  Act  relative  to  Teaching  Physiology  and  Hygiene  in  the  Public 

Schools. 
Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  in  General 

Court  assembled,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  as  follows :  — 

'  See  Report,  p.  40. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  135 

Section  1.  Section  one  of  chapter  three  hundred  and  thiity-two 
of  laws  of  Anno  Domini  eigliteen  hundred  and  eighty-five  is  hereby 
amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows  :  — 

The  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and  their  effects  on 
the  human  system,  shall  be  taught  in  connection  with  the  several 
divisions  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  as  thoroughly  as  are  other 
branches,  in  all  schools  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  public  money, 
including  all  schools  connected  with  reformatory  institutions. 

All  pupils  in  the  above-mentioned  schools  below  the  second  year  of 
the  high  schools  and  above  the  third  year  of  school  work,  computing 
from  the  beginning  of  the  lowest  primary  year,  or  in  corresponding 
classes  of  ungraded  schools,  shall  be  taught  and  shall  study  physiology 
and  hygiene,  including  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and 
narcotics,  every  year,  with  text-books  in  the  hands  of  all  pupils,  not 
less  than  three  lessons  a  week  for  ten  or  more  weeks  of  each  year,  or 
the  equivalent  of  the  same  each  year.  All  pupils  must  pass  the  same 
tests  for  promotion  in  this,  as  in  other  studies.  In  cases  wliere  there 
are  nine  years  below  the  high  school,  the  study  may  be  omitted  in  the 
ninth  year,  or  in  the  first  year  of  tiie  high  school,  but  not  in  both. 

In  all  public  schools  all  pupils  in  the  lowest  three  primary  school 
years,  or  in  corresponding  classes  in  ungi'aded  schools,  shall  each  year 
be  instructed  in  this  subject  orally  in  not  less  than  three  lessons  a 
week  for  ten  weeks  in  each  year,  or  the  equivalent  of  the  same  each 
year,  by  teachers  using  text-books  adapted  for  such  oral  instructions 
as  a  guide  and  standard. 

The  text-books  in  the  pupils'  hands  shall  be  graded  to  the  capacities 
of  the  fourth  year,  intermediate,  grammar,  and  high  school  pupils,  or 
to  corresponding  classes  in  ungraded  schools. 

For  students  below  high  school  grade  such  text-books  shall  give  at 
least  one  fifth  their  space,  and  for  students  of  high  school  grade,  shall 
give  not  less  than  twenty  pages  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic 
drinks  and  narcotics.  The  treatment  of  the  effects  of  alcoholic 
drinks  and  narcotics  shall  be  incorporated  with  each  division  of  the 
subject  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  all  text-books  used  in  compliance 
with  this  act. 

In  all  state  teachers'  institutes  and  in  all  state  normal  schools,  the 
State  Board  of  Education  shall  cause  adequate  instruction  to  be  given 
in  the  best  methods  of  teaching  this  branch  as  required  by  this  act. 

Nothing  in  this  act  shall  be  construed  to  apply  to  special  schools 
maintained  solely  for  instruction  in  particular  branches,  such  as  draw- 
ing, mechanics,  art,  and  like  studies.  ' 

Sec.  2.  The  school  committees  of  all  cities  and  towns,  the  county 
commissioner  in   control  of   all   truant  schools,  and  the  supervising 


136  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

boards,  trustees,  or  other  officers  in  control  of  all  schools  connected 
with  reformatory  institutions,  shall  annually,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
school  year,  provide  a  definite  time  and  place  in  the  regular  course  of 
study  for  the  given  number  of  lessons  in  this  branch,  and  an  adequate 
supply  of  text-books  for  the  pupils'  use,  as  required  by  this  act,  and 
also  for  the  teachers'  use  for  oral  instruction  in  primary  classes  ;  and 
shall  cause  the  requirements  of  this  act  to  be  complied  with  in  all 
scliools  under  their  jurisdiction.  The  school  committees  of  all  cities 
and  towns  shall  state  in  their  reports  to  the  Secretary  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education,  vfliether  all  the  provisions  of  this  act,  according 
to  the  best  of  their  knowledge  and  belief,  have  been  thus  complied  with. 

Any  member  of  a  school  committee  or  board,  or  any  trustee,  or 
supervising  officer  connected  with  a  reformatory  institution,  who  shall 
neglect  or  refuse  to  cooperate  in  securing  compliance  with  any  of  the 
provisions  of  this  act,  after  thirty  days'  notice  and  a  continuance  of 
such  neglect  or  refusal,  shall  pay  a  fine  for  such  neglect  or  refusal  of 
the  sum  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  dollars. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion to  send  annually  to  all  school  committees,  blanks  containing  the 
following  questions :  — 

First.  Have  you  provided,  during  the  last  school  year  in  the  schools 
under  your  jurisdiction,  a  definite  time  and  place  in  the  coui-se  of  study 
for  the  required  number  of  lessons  for  all  pupils  in  physiology  and 
hygiene,  including  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  nar- 
cotics upon  the  human  system  as  specified  in  section  one  of  Act  [  ] 
and  have  you  required  that  study  to  be  pursued  by  all  pupils  in  all 
schools  under  your  jurisdiction  as  specified  by  that  act,  with  the  same 
tests  for  promotion  as  in  other  studies  ? 

Second.  Have  you  provided  text-books  on  the  foregoing  topics  that 
are  adapted  to  the  several  grades,  and  that  give  the  specified  space  to 
the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  which  the  law 
demands  ? 

Every  school  committee  to  whom  these  blanks  are  sent  shall  return 
them  at  the  close  of  the  school  year  to  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board 
of  Education,  with  answers  filled  out  and  an  affidavit  that  these  ques- 
tions are  truthfully  answered. 

The  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  shall  include  in  his 
annual  report  to  the  legislature  a  report  concerning  the  compliance 
with  the  requirements  of  this  act. 

Trial  justices,  district,  municipal,  and  police  courts  shall  have  juris- 
diction of  offenses  under  this  act. 

Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  on  the  first  day  of  August,  in  the 
year  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-nine. 


THE   INFLUENCE   OF   ALCOHOL   AND   ALCO- 
HOLIC BEVERAGES 

ON 

DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 

By  Dr.  K.  H.  CHITTENDEN. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


DEFINITIOXS  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS  AND  EXPLANATIONS 
FOR  LAY  READERS. 

Physiologically  speaking,  digestion  is  a  somewhat  broad 
term  including  a  variety  of  processes,  all  having  for  their  ob- 
ject, however,  the  conversion  of  the  several  classes  of  foodstuffs 
into  forms  capable  of  being  absorbed  and  utilized  by  the  body. 
These  processes  are  chemico-physiological  in  nature,  involving 
not  only  the  simple  solvent  or  digestive  action  of  the  several  di- 
gestive juices,  i.  e.,  the  purely  chemical  processes,  but  also  the 
purely  physiological  processes  of  secretion,  absorption,  peristal- 
sis, etc.  The  fluids  most  intimately  concerned  in  digestion  are 
the  saliva,  gastric  juice,  and  pancreatic  juice,  while  the  bile  and 
the  succus  entevicus,  i.  e.,  the  secretion  from  the  small  intestine, 
are  likewise  valuable  aids. 

The  saliva  is  manufactured  and  secreted  by  three  sets  of 
glands  known  as  the  parotid,  submaxillary,  and  sublingual  glands, 
which  pour  their  secretions  into  the  mouth  cavity,  where  they 
mingle  with  the  secretion  from  the  buccal  glands,  the  mixture 
constituting  the  so-called  mixed  saliva.  The  gastric  juice  is 
secreted  by  the  tiuy  cells  contained  in  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  stomach,  while  the  pancreatic  juice  is  manufactured  in  the 
pancreatic  gland  and  brought  to  the  small  intestine,  when  re- 
quired, through  a  small  duct  or  tube.  These  secretions  have 
their  origin  primarily  in  the  blood  ;  that  is,  the  blood  brings  to 
the  glands  nutritive  material  which  the  gland  cells  work  over 
and  eventually  transform  into  the  specific  substances  character- 
istic of  the  respective  secretions. 

These  various  digestive  fluids  are  secreted  only  under  the  in- 
fluence of  stimulation,  mainly  reflex  through  the  nerves  going 
to  and  coming  from  the  glands,  although  mechanical  stimula- 
tion may  likewise  be  effective  in  some  degree,  particularly  with 


140  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

the  saliva  and  gastric  juice.  Many  circumstances  combine  to 
modify  the  extent  and  quality  of  the  secretion  furnished  by 
these  several  glands,  1.  e.,  the  character  and  extent  of  the  stimu- 
lation, so  that  constant  fluctuation,  within  certain  limits,  may 
be  expected  in  the  volume  and  concentration  of  the  fluids  from 
day  to  day,  and  hence  in  their  physiological  activity  likewise. 
Thus,  influences  which  affect  the  volume  and  character  of  the 
blood  flowing  through  the  glands,  local  blood-pressure,  etc.,  as 
well  as  the  character  and  amount  of  the  ingested  food,  all  have 
an  effect  upon  the  volume  and  comj^osition  of  the  secretions. 

The  digestive  power  of  these  several  secretions  is  dependent 
mainly  upon  the  presence  of  specific  ferments  or  enzymes,  manu- 
factured in  the  glands,  which,  acting  upon  the  foodstuffs  under 
suitable  conditions,  render  them  soluble  and  diffusible  and  so 
capable  of  being  absorbed.  The  saliva  is  a  slightly  alkaline 
fluid,  and  in  virtue  of  the  enzyme  (ptyalin)  it  contains  acts 
upon  starchy  or  farinaceous  foods,  transforming  them  into 
soluble  dextrins  and  sugars,  —  a  process  which  commences  in 
the  mouth  and  continues  for  a  brief  time  in  the  stomach,  until 
the  enzyme  is  finally  destroyed  by  the  increasing  acidity  of  the 
gastric  juice.  This  starch-digesting  action  of  the  saliva  is  fre- 
quently spoken  of  as  amylolytic  action,  while  the  active  agent 
may  be  described  as  an  amylohjtic  ferment  or  enzyme.  The  gas- 
tric juice  is  an  acid-reacting  fluid  containing  normally  about  two 
tenths  per  cent,  of  hydrochloric  acid,  the  enzyme  pepsin  and  a 
milk-curdling  enzyme  known  as  rennin.  The  main  action  of  the 
gastric  juice,  in  virtue  of  the  contained  pepsin-hydrochloric  acid, 
is  upon  the  proteid  or  albuminous  foods  transforming  them  into 
a  number  of  products,  chiefly  proteoses  and  peptones,  charac- 
terized especially  by  their  solubility  and  diffusibility.  This 
proteid-digesting  power  is  described  as  proteolytic  action,  and 
the  enzyme  which  accomplishes  the  transformation  of  the  proteid 
is  known  as  a  p7-oteoIytic  enzyme.  When  the  acid  chyme,  1.  e., 
the  semi-digested  mass  in  the  stomach,  leaves  the  latter  organ, 
it  passes  through  the  pyloric  orifice  into  the  small  intestine, 
where  it  is  exposed  to  the  double  action  of  the  bile  and  pancre- 
atic juice.  The  latter  is  a  powerful  digestive  fluid  of  sti'ong 
alkaline  reaction,  containing  three  distinct  enzymes.  One  of 
these  is  an  amylolytic  or  starch-digesting  enzyme  essentially 
identical  with  the  enzyme  of  saliva  and  converts  any  unchanged 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  141 

starch  into  soluble  clextrins  and  sugar.  The  second  ferment  is 
a  powerful  proteolytic  enzyme  known  as  trypsin  which  in  a 
neutral  or  alkaline-reacting  fluid  transforms  proteid  matter  into 
a  row  of  soluble  products  different  in  nature  from  those  formed 
in  acid  gastric  digestion.  The  third  ferment  is  an  adipolytic 
or  fat-splitting  enzyme  which  transforms  at  least  a  portion  of 
the  fats  of  the  food  into  soluble  forms.  This  threefold  action 
of  the  pancreatic  juice  may  continue  for  some  time  in  the  small 
intestine,  but  as  the  peristaltic  or  wave-like  contraction  of  the 
intestinal  walls  tends  to  push  the  contents  of  the  tube  onward 
toward  the  large  intestine,  and  as  absorption  is  quite  rapid 
at  this  point,  the  conditions  gradually  become  unfavorable  for 
further  digestive  action. 

From  the  foregoing,  it  is  plain  that  digestion,  broadly  speak- 
ing, may  be  modified  in  a  variety  of  ways,  notably  through  the 
influence  of  agencies  affecting  the  nervous  system,  thereby  modi- 
fying the  rate  and  character  of  the  secretions  coming  from  the 
digestive  glands.  Thus,  agents  introduced  with  the  food,  as 
well  as  the  food  itself,  may  after  their  absorption  into  the  cir- 
culation lead  to  changes  in  the  rate  of  flow  and  composition  of 
the  blood  passing  through  the  glands,  modifying  thereby  the 
amount  of  material  available  for  the  manufacture  of  the  several 
digestive  secretions.  Further,  these  agents  may  exert  a  spe- 
cific influence  upon  the  nerves  which  directly  govern  secretion, 
thereby  directly  affecting  the  manufacture  and  flow  of  the  in- 
dividual digestive  fluids.  Again,  the  mere  presence  of  sub- 
stances introduced  with  the  food  may  exert  an  influence  upon 
the  digestive  or  solvent  action  of  the  secretions,  thus  modifying 
the  rate  of  digestion.  For  example,  the  presence  of  salt  in  the 
stomach-contents  may  lead  to  an  acceleration  of  gastric  digestion 
through  a  simple  acceleration  of  ferment  action,  while  larger 
quantities  of  the  same  salt  in  the  stomach  may  retard  gastric 
digestion  through  inhibition  of  ferment  action.  Obviously,  the 
duration  of  this  acceleration  or  retardation  of  gastric  digestion 
would  depend  primarily  upon  tlie  length  of  time  the  salt  re- 
mained in  the  stomach,  i.  e.,  upon  the  rapidity  of  its  absorption 
and  consequent  removal  from  the  alimentary  tract.  Still  again, 
the  rate  of  digestion  may  be  modified  by  agents  which,  absorbed 
into  the  blood,  act  upon  the  nerves,  controlling  the  motor  func- 
tions of  the  stomach  and  intestine.     Thus,  normally  the  latter 


142  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

organs  are  constantly  in  motion,  producing  a  more  or  less  con- 
stant agitation  or  churning  of  the  respective  contents  which 
serves  to  intimately  mingle  the  food  particles  with  the  digestive 
juices,  thereby  accelerating  digestion.  Hence,  everything  else 
being  equal,  anything  which  tends  to  accelerate  peristalsis  will 
in  turn  accelerate  the  rate  of  digestion,  while,  on  the  other  iand, 
retardation  of  peristalsis  may  be  accompanied  by  inhibition  of 
digestion.  Lastly,  the  rate  of  absorption  from  the  alimentary 
tract  exercises  an  influence  upon  the  speed  of  digestion :  con- 
sequently any  agent  which,  for  example,  modifies  the  flow  of 
blood  along  the  gastro-intestinal  tract,  thus  influencing  the  rate 
of  absorption,  may  indirectly  affect  the  speed  of  digestion.  It 
is  thus  plainly  evident  that  what  we  term  digestion  may  be  in- 
fluenced through  a  variety  of  channels,  but  the  two  more  im- 
portant ways  in  which  digestion  may  be  modified  are  through 
changes  in  the  rate  of  flow  and  composition  of  the  digestive 
fluids,  i.  e.,  changes  in  secretion,  and  through  changes  (either 
acceleration  or  retardation)  in  the  rate  of  digestive  action  caused 
by  the  mere  presence  of  some  substance  in  the  digestive  mix- 
ture, i.  e.,  through  a  direct  influence  upon  the  purely  chemical 
processes  of  digestion.  Moreover,  it  is  obvious  likewise  that  a 
substance  may  exercise  an  inhibitory  influence  in  one  direction, 
as  upon  the  chemical  process  of  digestion,  while  leading  to  an 
acceleration  in  another  direction,  as  on  secretion.  Further, 
a  given  agent  may  produce  one  effect  on  salivary  digestion 
and  quite  a  different  effect  on  gastric  digestion.  Obviously, 
therefore,  in  studying  the  influence  of  alcoholic  beverages  on 
digestion,  there  are  many  lines  of  inquiry  which  must  receive 
attention. 


n. 

GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS  AS  TO  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  ALCO- 
HOL AND  ALCOHOLIC  BEVERAGES  ON  DIGESTION. 

As  already  indicated,  digestion  may  be  influenced  by  alcoholic 
fluids  in  several  ways,  notably  by  influencing  the  rate  of  secre- 
tion of  the  digestive  fluid,  either  increasing  or  diminishing  the 
rate  of  flow  and  thereby  increasing  or  decreasing  the  volume  of 
digestive  fluid  available,  and  also  by  modifying  either  favorably 
or  unfavorably  the  chemical  composition  of  the  secretion.  Fur- 
ther, the  presence  of  the  alcoholic  fluid,  in  the  stomach  for  ex- 
ample, may  exercise  a  direct  influence  upon  the  chemical  pro- 
cesses of  digestion,  either  augmenting  or  retarding  the  natural 
solvent  or  digestive  action  of  the  secretion.  Again,  digestion 
may  be  influenced  indirectly  by  the  action  of  an  alcoholic  fluid 
upon  the  rate  of  absorption  and  upon  the  peristaltic  movements 
of  the  intestine,  since  both  of  these  factors  exert  an  influence 
upon  the  rapidity  of  digestion. 

1.  Gastric  Digestion. 
a.  Influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages  on  the  secre- 
tion of  gastric  juice.  The  results  of  the  experiments  carried  out 
by  the  writer  and  his  assistants  on  the  influence  of  alcohol  and 
alcoholic  beverages  on  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice  lead  to  some 
very  definite  conclusions.  The  data  obtained  and  presented  in 
detail  in  the  subjoined  report  tend  to  show  that  when  alcohol 
and  alcoholic  fluids  are  taken  into  the  stomach  there  is  a  marked 
increase  in  the  flow  of  gastric  juice  accompanied  by  an  increase 
in  the  content  of  the  essential  constituents,  pepsin  and  hydro- 
chloric acid,  as  well  as  in  the  content  of  total  solid  matter. 
Moreover,  this  stimulating  effect  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  bev- 
erages upon  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice  is  not  limited  to  a 
direct  action  dependent  upon  the  presence  of  the  alcoholic  fluid 
in  the  stomach,  but  is  exerted  likewise  indirectly  through  the 
influence  of  alcohol  absorbed  from  the  intestine.     Thus,  if  the 


144  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

intestine  is  entirely  shut  o£E  from  the  stomach  by  a  ligature  at 
the  jjylorus,  the  introduction  of  an  alcoholic  fluid  into  the  in- 
testine is  followed  by  a  stimulation  of  the  gastric  glands  accom- 
panied by  an  outpouring  of  the  gastric  secretion.  Whiskey, 
brandy,  sherry,  claret,  beer,  and  porter,  as  well  as  pure  alcohol, 
all  agree  in  producing  direct  and  indirect  stimulation  of  gastric 
secretion,  increasing  both  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  gastric  juice 
and  the  concentration  of  the  fluid. 

Of  special  importance  in  this  connection  is  the  fact,  brought 
out  by  experiment,  that  when  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages 
are  introduced  into  the  alimentary  tract  there  is  a  very  rapid 
absorption  of  the  alcohol  into  the  circulation.  The  alcohol 
quickly  leaves  the  stomach  and  intestine  passing  into  the  blood, 
this  act  being  accompanied  by  an  inrush  of  acid  gastric  juice  in 
large  quantity.  Even  from  the  stomach,  where  absorption  is 
ordinarily  comparatively  slight,  the  absorption  of  alcohol  goes 
on  with  considerable  rapidity.  Thus,  the  introduction  of  two 
hundred  c.  c.  of  thirty-seven  per  cent,  alcohol  into  the  stomach 
of  a  dog  with  the  intestine  ligated  at  the  p3dorus  may  be  followed 
by  the  nearly  complete  disapj)earance  of  the  alcohol  in  three 
hours  by  absorption  through  the  stomach  walls  into  the  blood. 
When  the  outlet  from  the  stomach  into  the  intestine  is  open, 
then  the  rate  of  absorption  of  alcohol  is  greatly  increased.  Al- 
cohol unquestionably  disappears  from  the  alimentary  tract  quite 
rapidly.  Thus,  in  one  experiment,  fifty  c.  c.  of  twenty  per  cent, 
alcohol  were  introduced  into  the  stomach  of  a  dog  with  a  gas- 
tric fistula,  and  on  withdrawal  of  the  stomach-contents  half  an 
hour  later  no  alcohol  whatever  was  found  in  the  forty  c.  c.  of 
fluid  obtained.  In  view  of  this  rapid  disappearance  of  alcohol 
from  the  alimentary  tract  it  is  plain  that  alcoholic  fluids  cannot 
have  much,  if  any,  direct  influence  upon  the  secretion  of  either 
pancreatic  or  intestinal  juice.  Further,  it  is  equally  clear  that 
the  rapid  removal  of  alcohol  from  the  stomach  by  absorption 
must  tend  to  diminish  considerably  any  influence  the  presence 
of  alcohol  might  exert  upon  the  solvent  or  digestive  action  of 
the  gastric  juice  in  the  stomach. 

The  conclusion  is  therefore  obvious  that  when  alcoholic  fluids 
are  taken  into  the  stomach  there  is  first  a  direct  stimulation, 
leading  to  the  rapid  secretion  of  a  powerful  gastric  juice.  This 
is  followed  by  a  more  or  less  rapid  absorption  of  the  alcohol 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  145 

accompanied  in  turn  by  an  indirect  or  secondary  stimulation  of 
gastric  secretion.  These  conclusions  are  in  accord  with  many 
previous  observations  bearing  upon  this  subject.  Thus,  in  many 
of  the  older  handbooks  of  physiology  the  statement  is  frequently 
found  that  ''  alcohol  is  a  strong  stimulant  of  gastric  secretion," 
and  it  has  been  a  common  practice  to  use  alcohol  as  a  means  of 
obtaining  gastric  juice  from  dogs  with  gastric  fistulae.^  Glu- 
zinski,  in  1886,  reported  that  when  brandy  and  dilute  alcohol 
were  administered  to  men  these  fluids  gave  rise,  after  a  brief 
preliminary  period,  to  the  formation  of  a  very  active  gastric 
juice,  rich  in  hydrochloric  acid.  Wolff,  in  1889,  found  that 
cognac  in  small  doses  increased  the  secretion  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  He  reports  in  addition,  however,  that  in  larger  quantity 
it  decreases  the  acidity  of  the  gastric  juice.  Klemperer,  in 
1890,  observed  that  moderate  doses  of  alcohol  led  to  a  very 
slight  increase  in  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice,  while  in  the 
same  year  Blumenau  reported  that  the  introduction  of  twenty- 
five  to  fifty  per  cent,  alcohol  into  the  healthy  human  stomach 
acts  as  a  secretory  stimulant,  bringing  about  an  increased  flow 
of  gastric  juice  with  rise  of  acidity.  Brandl,  in  1892,  experi- 
menting with  fistulous  dogs,  found  that  alcohol  —  as  contrasted 
with  water —  introduced  with  foodstuffs  into  the  stomach  brings 
about  an  unfailing,  though  not  particularlj-  large,  increase  in 
gastric  secretion.  Lastly,  Haan,  in  1895,  with  repeated  and  in- 
creasing doses  of  alcohol  observed  an  augmentation  in  the  acidity 
of  the  gastric  seci-etion  from  the  dog,  followed  after  a  few  days 
by  a  diminution  in  the  amount  of  secretion  and  a  gradual  decline 
in  acidity.  It  is  thus  apparent  that,  in  a  general  way  at  least, 
there  is  a  perfect  agreement  between  our  observations  upon  this 
subject  and  the  recorded  observations  of  other  physiologists. 
Further,  there  is  no  necessary  inconsistency  between  the  stimu- 
lating action  of  alcohol  upon  gastric  secretion  and  the  quite  prob- 
able detrimental  action  of  larger  doses  frequently  repeated.  As 
stated  by  both  Heidenhain  and  Lauder  Brunton,  large  amounts 
of  alcohol  are  regarded  as  detrimental  to  the  stomach,  giving 
rise  eventually  to  a  pathological  condition,  a  statement  which  is 
doubtless  correct.  It  has  been  our  aim,  however,  to  ascertain 
the  physiological    action  of  alcoholic  beverages   upon   gastric 

1  The  authority  for  these  and  some  of  the  following  statements  will  be 
found  in  the  references  on  pages  251-253  of  this  report. 


146  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

secretion,  and  upon  this  point  our  conclusions  are  quite  definite 
that  they  act  as  stimulants. 

6.  Injluence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages  on  the  chem- 
ical 2}'>'occsses  of  gastric  digestion.  Our  exjieriments  upon 
this  subject  have  been  very  numerous,  and  for  the  detailed  re- 
sults reference  must  be  made  to  the  subjoined  report.  It  will 
suffice  here  to  state  merely  our  general  conclusions,  bearing  in 
mind,  however,  that  these  have  to  do  simply  with  the  action  of 
various  alcoholic  fluids  upon  the  chemical  processes  of  gastric 
digestion,  i.  e.,  the  influence  of  the  presence  of  alcoholic  fluids 
in  the  stomach  upon  the  solvent  or  digestive  action  of  the  gastric 
juice  on  proteid  foods. 

Pui-e  ethyl  alcohol,  when  mixed  with  the  stomach-contents  or 
with  an  artificial  pepsin-acid  solution,  has  little  or  no  effect  on 
pepsin-proteolysis  when  present  in  small  amount,  say  one  or  two 
per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol.  Not  until  the  digestive  mixture 
contains  five  to  ten  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  is  the  action  of 
the  gastric  juice  materially  interfered  with.  With  these  propor- 
tions of  absolute  alcohol,  equal  to  ten  or  twenty  per  cent,  of  proof 
spirit,  retardation  of  proteolysis  becomes  noticeable,  while  in  the 
presence  of  fifteen  to  eighteen  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  di- 
gestive action  may  be  reduced  one  quarter  or  even  one  third. 
Especially  noteworthy  is  the  fact  that  the  extent  of  retardation 
by  a  given  percentage  of  alcohol  varies  greatly  with  the  strength 
or  activity  of  the  gastric  juice  and  with  the  digestibility  of  the 
proteid  food.  Everj'thing  else  being  equal,  the  greater  the 
strength  or  digestive  power  of  the  gastric  juice,  the  less  is  the 
retardation  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  weaker  the  gastric 
juice,  the  greater  is  the  inhibitory  action  of  a  given  amount 
of  alcohol.  Normally,  however,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  until  the 
stomach-contents  contain  ten  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit,  there  is 
no  appreciable  retardation  of  the  solvent  action  of  the  gastric 
juice. 

Strong  alcoholic  beverages,  such  as  whiskey,  brandy,  rum, 
and  gin,  ordinarily  containing  from  forty  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  ab- 
solute alcohol,  have  an  action  upon  gastric  digestion  practically 
proportional  to  the  amount  of  alcohol  present.  Thus,  with  a 
vigorous  gastric  juice,  the  presence  of  ten  per  cent,  of  whiskey 
results  simply  in  a  slight  retardation  of  digestive  action.  With 
a  weak  gastric  juice,  the  retardation  is  much  greater.     When 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  147 

digestive  action  is  fairly  vigorous,  the  presence  of  small  per- 
centages of  whiskey  causes  practically  no  retardation.  The 
detailed  results  of  our  experiments  in  this  direction,  given  in 
the  subjoined  report,  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  pure  whiskey, 
rum,  brandy,  and  gin  are  no  more  deleterious  to  the  digestive 
action  of  gastric  juice  than  corresponding  strengths  of  absolute 
alcohol,  and  that  in  the  healthy  individual  these  liquors  can  be 
considered  to  directly  impede  the  gastric  digestion  of  pvoteid 
foods  only  when  taken  immoderately  and  in  intoxicating  doses. 
The  possible  presence  of  so-called  fusel  oils  in  whiskey,  as  an 
impurity,  cannot  materially  modify  the  action  of  this  alcoholic 
beverage  on  gastric  proteolysis.  Our  experiments  tend  to  show 
that  in  small  quantities  the  higher  alcohols  characteristic  of 
fusel  oils  are  prone  to  increase  somewhat  the  solvent  action  of 
the  gastric  juice,  and  it  is  only  when  j)resent  in  large  amounts, 
far  larger  than  would  be  possible  when  introduced  as  an  impur- 
ity in  whiskey,  that  they  show  any  decided  inhibitory  action. 

In  considering  the  influence  of  wines  upon  the  solvent  action 
of  the  gastric  juice,  they  may  be  divided  for  convenience  into 
the  two  classes  of  heavy  and  light  wines,  i.  e.,  those  which  con- 
tain a  comparatively  large  percentage  of  alcohol,  as  shen-y,  and 
those  which  contain  a  smaller  amount  of  alcohol,  as  claret,  and 
hocks.  With  such  samples  of  sherry  wine  as  we  have  experi- 
mented with  —  samples  containing  from  twenty  to  twenty-one  per 
cent,  of  alcohol  —  there  is  marked  retardation  of  gastric  proteo- 
lysis. The  inhibition  produced  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  alcohol  present.  Indeed,  the  presence  in  a  digestive 
mixture  of  five  per  cent,  of  sherry,  equal  to  not  more  than  one 
per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol,  has  a  far  greater  retarding  effect 
on  the  solvent  action  of  the  gastric  juice  than  even  five  per 
cent,  of  absolute  alcohol.  That  the  inhibitory  action  of  the 
sherry  is  not  due  to  the  alcoliol  or  other  volatile  matters  con- 
tained in  the  fluid  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  when  the  dis- 
tillate from  tlie  wine  is  added  to  an  artificial  gastric  juice, 
in  amount  equal  to  ten  per  cent,  of  the  original  wine,  there 
is  distinct  stimulation  of  digestive  action.  The  retarding  ac- 
tion is  due,  mainly  at  least,  to  the  solid  matters  present  in  thfe 
wine,  which  in  this  particular  sample  amounted  to  4.73  per 
cent.  These  conclusions  are  based  upon  experimental  data 
which  are  seemingly  quite  definite.     Doubtless,  however,  the 


148  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

natural  variability  in  the  amount  and  character  of  the  solid 
matter  contained  iu  wines  of  this  class  may  lead  to  some  varia- 
tion in  the  extent  of  the  influence  exerted  on  the  solvent  action 
of  the  gastric  juice.  With  clarets,  on  the  other  hand,  containing 
approximately  ten  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  small  amounts  (say  one 
per  cent.)  added  to  gastric  juice  lead  to  an  increase  in  the  rate 
of  digestion.  Large  amounts  of  claret  have  a  distinct  inhibitory 
action  which,  however,  is  not  anywhere  near  so  pronounced  as 
with  sherry.  It  is  true  that  the  content  of  alcohol  in  the  claret 
is  only  half  that  of  the  sherry,  but  even  six  per  cent,  of  claret  is 
equal  to  only  six  tenths  of  one  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol. 
The  retardation,  however,  produced  by  the  presence  of  five  per 
cent,  of  claret  is  approximately  equivalent  to  that  caused  by  five 
per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol,  from  which  it  is  evident  that  the 
inhibition  of  proteolysis  produced  by  the  presence  of  large 
amounts  of  clai-et  must  be  due  to  something  other  than  the  alco- 
hol present.  This  is  unquestionably  the  solid  matter  and  ex- 
tractives present.  With  white  wines  of  the  hochheimer  type,  con- 
taining about  eleven  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  small  quantities  tend 
to  increase  the  rate  of  pepsin-digestion,  while  larger  amounts, 
say  ten  per  cent.,  have  a  slight  retarding  effect  which  is  due  al- 
most wholly  to  the  solid  matter  present  in  the  wine  rather  than 
to  the  alcohol  or  other  volatile  matter.  Seemingly,  white  wines 
are  far  less  active  than  red  wines  in  inhibiting  pepsin-proteolysis, 
due  doubtless  to  the  fact  that  they  contain,  as  a  rule,  less  solid 
matter  than  the  red  wines.  That  such  retardation  of  digestive 
proteolysis  as  these  various  alcoholic  beverages  produce  is  due 
far  more  to  the  presence  of  extractives,  etc.,  than  to  the  alco- 
hol contained  in  them  is  plainly  evident  from  a  comparison  of 
the  relative  action  of  a  given  percentage  (say  five  per  cent.)  of 
rum,  whiskey,  brandy,  sherry,  hochheimer,  and  claret  upon  the 
digestive  action  of  the  gastric  juice.  Thus,  in  one  comparative 
experiment  of  this  character,  it  was  found  that  sherry,  with 
its  high  content  of  solid  matter,  had  the  greatest  retarding 
action,  while  claret  came  next,  followed  by  the  hochheimer. 
Rum,  whiskey,  and  brandy,  with  the  highest  content  of  alco- 
hol, produced  the  least  effect.  In  other  words,  rum,  whiskey, 
and  brandy  cause  approximately  only  half  the  retardation  of 
gastric  proteolysis  that  the  same  percentage  of  claret  will  pro- 
duce, although  the  latter  contains  only  one  fifth  as  much  abso- 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  149 

lute  alcohol ;  five  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  has  no  greater 
retarding  action  than  the  same  percentage  of  claret  with  only- 
one  tenth  as  much  alcohol. 

With  malt  liquors,  such  as  ale,  lager  beer,  bock  beer,  stout, 
and  porter,  having  a  content  of  alcohol  ranging  fi'om  1.5  to  5.5 
per  cent.,  our  experiments  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  in  small 
quantities  they  are  without  any  inhibitory  influence  on  the 
digestive  power  of  the  gastric  juice  ;  indeed,  small  amounts 
show  a  tendency  to  increase  slightly  the  rate  of  digestion.  In 
larger  quantities,  they  give  rise  to  an  inhibition  of  proteolysis 
which  is  entirely  unconnected  with  the  small  amounts  of  al- 
cohol present,  but  directly  traceable  to  the  comparatively  large 
amounts  of  extractives  they  contain.  When  these  beverages 
are  consumed  very  freely  with  the  meals,  so  that  the  digesting 
mass  in  the  stomach  contains  from  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  a 
malt  liquor,  then  the  retarding  action  upon  the  solvent  or  di- 
gestive power  of  the  gastric  juice  must  be  very  considerable 
owing  to  the  influence  of  the  extractives  they  contain.  Taken 
in  small  quantities,  on  the  other  hand,  these  malt  liquors  are 
without  any  noticeable  inhibitory  effect  upon  the  proteolytic 
action  of  gastric  juice.  As  stated  in  the  subjoined  report, 
such  inhibitory  action  as  these  fluids  possess  is  to  be  compared 
to  the  inhibitory  action  of  such  beverages  as  tea  and  coffee,  the 
retarding  action  of  which  is  equally  pronounced  or  even  greater 
when  the  latter  are  consumed  in  large  quantities.  It  is  also  to 
be  noted  that  the  extractives  or  solid  matters  ordinarily  pre- 
sent in  malt  liquors  are  not  especially  peculiar  in  possessing  this 
retarding  action  upon  pepsin-proteolysis.  It  is,  indeed,  a  pro- 
perty shared  by  many  substances,  and  does  not  in  itself  neces- 
sarily constitute  an  evil  of  any  great  magnitude  unless  the 
retardation  is  very  pronounced  and  liable  to  be  long  continued. 
Then  it  may  become  a  serious  evil,  and  one  sufiicient'to  con- 
demn the  substance  which  causes  it. 

Our  results  and  the  conclusions  we  draw  from  them  are 
in  close  accord  with  the  published  statements  of  nimierous 
investigators  in  this  direction.  Thus,  Sir  William  Roberts  ^ 
found  by  artificial  digestion  experiments  that  in  the  presence 
of   less  than   ten  per  cent,  of  proof   spirit  there  was  no  ap- 

^  The  authority  for  these  and  some  of  the  following  statements  is  to  be 
found  in  the  references  on  pages  251-253  of  this  report. 


150  THE   LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

preciable  retardation  of  gastric  digestion.  With  twenty  per 
cent,  of  proof  spirit  there  was  distinct,  though  slight,  re- 
tardation. Klikowicz  observed  that  five  per  cent,  of  alco- 
hol in  a  digestive  mixture  led  to  somewhat  variable  results, 
although,  as  a  rule,  slight  stimulation  of  proteolysis  was  ob- 
servable. With  whiskey,  Roberts  obtained  results  which  led 
him  to  the  conclusion  that,  "  taking  into  account  the  quantity 
of  whiskey  commonly  used  dietetically  with  the  meals,  the 
amount  so  consumed  is  not  sufficient  to  appreciably  retard 
the  speed  of  gastric  digestion.  For  if  the  digesting  mass  in 
the  stomach  be  estimated  at  two  pounds,  a  wineglass  (two 
ounces)  of  whiskey  added  thereto  would  only  equal  five  per 
cent,  of  proof  spirit  (or  2.5  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol),  an 
amount  too  small  to  hamper  digestion  to  any  appreciable  ex- 
tent." In  regard  to  the  action  of  wines  Buchner  found,  in 
agreement  with  our  results,  that  the  light  white  and  red  French 
wines  retard  gastric  digestion  far  more  than  corresponding 
quantities  of  alcohol,  and  Sir  William  Roberts  came  to  the 
same  conclusion.  Writing  of  the  dietetic  use  of  sherry,  the 
latter  authority  concludes  from  his  experiments  that  "  as  used 
dietetically,  sherry  must  figure  as  having  frequently  an  im- 
portant retarding  effect  on  pejitic  digestion.  This  wine  is  used 
with  dinner  by  some  persons  very  freely.  Half  a  pint  of  sherry 
is  no  unusual  allowance,  and  this  in  a  total  gastric  charge  of 
two  pounds  amounts  to  about  twenty-five  per  cent.,  which  the 
table  shows  to  be  a  highly  inhibitory  proportion.  In  the  more 
common  practice  of  taking  two  or  three  wineglasses  of  sherry 
with  dinner,  we  see  probably  a  double  action  —  a  stimulating 
action  on  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice  and  on  the  muscular 
contraction  of  the  stomach,  and  a  slight  retarding  effect  on  the 
speed  of  the  chemical  process  especially  in  its  early  stages." 
Again,'  the  same  writer  states,  "  If  we  consider  the  copious  pro- 
portions in  which  hock  and  claret  are  used  dietetically,  it  be- 
comes evident  that  their  retarding  effect  on  peptic  digestion  is 
often  brought  into  play.  A  pint  of  claret  or  hock  is  a  common 
allowance  with  dinner  for  robust  eaters  —  and  such  a  propor- 
tion, as  the  table  shows,  would  not  be  without  considerable 
effect.  .  .  .  On  the  other  hand,  the  more  sparing  use  of  these 
wines,  a  glass  or  two  with  dinner  or  luncheon  would  evidently 
not  produce  any  appreciable  retardation  of  peptic  action,  but 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  151 

would,  like  corresponding  doses  of  sherry,  act  as  pure  stimu- 
lants." With  these  statements  our  results  and  the  conclusions 
we  are  inclined  to  draw  from  them  ai-e  in  close  accord. 

c.  Influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages  on  gastric 
digestion  as  an  entirety.  —  From  what  has  already  been  stated, 
it  is  evident  that  alcohol  and  alcoholic  fluids  may  act  directly 
and  indirectly  as  stimulants  to  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice, 
and  judged  from  this  standpoint  alone,  their  ingestion  in  not 
too  large  quantities  must  tend  to  accelerate  the  digestion  of 
proteid  foods  in  the  stomach.  Coupled  with  this  stimulating 
action  upon  secretion,  however,  we  find  that  the  presence  of 
alcoholic  fluids  in  the  stomach,  especially  when  present  in  large 
amounts,  leads  to  an  inhibition  of  the  chemical  process  of 
digestion,  i.  e.,  causes  a  retardation  of  the  solvent  action  char- 
acteristic of  digestion.  The  question  therefore  naturally  arises, 
how  far  these  two  diverse  effects  may  neutralize  each  other? 
In  other  words,  what  is  the  result  of  this  divergent  action  upon 
the  process  of  digestion  as  it  goes  on  in  the  living  stomach  ? 
In  view  of  what  has  been  stated  regarding  the  rapid  with- 
drawal of  alcohol  from  the  stomach  by  absorption,  together 
with  the  action  of  the  absorbed  alcohol  upon  secretion,  it  would 
appear  that  the  stimulating  effect  of  alcoholic  fluids  upon  gas- 
tric secretion  would  be  far  more  lasting  than  the  inhibitory 
action  upon  the  chemical  process  of  digestion,  and  thus  lead  to 
a  marked  increase  in  the  rate  of  digestion.  This  point  has  been 
carefully  tested  by  a  long  row  of  experiments  upon  dogs  with 
gastric  fistidae,  comparing  the  rate  of  digestion  of  a  given  test 
meal  to  which  water  was  added,  with  the  rate  of  digestion  of  a 
corresponding  meal  to  which  alcohol  or  some  alcoholic  beverage 
was  added.  The  results  collectively  indicate  that  the  period  of 
gastric  digestion  is  not  greatly  varied  under  the  influence  of 
alcohol  or  alcoholic  beverages.  In  some  few  of  the  experi- 
ments, the  results  indicate  a  slight  acceleration  of  digestion  in 
the  presence  of  weak  alcoholic  beverages,  while  in  others  strong 
alcohol  retards  slightly  the  rate  of  digestion.  Giving  due  heed, 
however,  to  the  unavoidable  errors  which  must  of  necessity  at- 
tend this  kind  of  experimentation,  we  believe  that  the  results 
obtained  justify  the  conclusion  that  gastric  digestion  as  a  whole 
is  not  materially  modified  by  the  introduction  of  alcoholic  fluids 
with  the  food.     In  other  words,  the  unquestionable  acceleration 


152  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

of  gastric  secretion  which  follows  the  ingestion  of  alcoholic 
beverages  is,  as  a  rule,  counterbalanced  by  the  inhibitory  effect 
of  the  alcoholic  fluids  upon  the  chemical  process  of  gastric 
digestion,  with  perhaps  at  times  a  tendency  toward  preponder- 
ance of  inhibitory  action.  The  general  conclusion  that  alco- 
holic beverages  do  not,  as  a  rule,  materially  modify  the  ultimate 
result  in  gastric  digestion  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  ob- 
servations of  Zuntz  and  Magnus-Levy  ^  regarding  the  influence 
of  alcohol  (beer)  on  the  digestibility  and  utilization  of  food  in 
the  body.  Thus  it  was  found  by  these  investigators,  fi'om  a  series 
of  metabolic  experiments  on  men  with  diets  largely  made  up  of 
milk  and  bread,  and  on  individuals  accustomed  and  unaccus- 
tomed to  the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages,  that  the  latter  did  not 
in  any  way  diminish  the  utilization  of  the  food  by  the  body. 

2.  Salivary  Digestion. 

a.  Influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages  on  the  secre- 
tion of  saliva.  Our  expei'iments  as  to  the  influence  of  alco- 
hol and  alcoholic  fluids  on  the  secretion  of  mixed  saliva  in  man 
and  on  the  secretion  of  the  submaxillary  saliva  in  dogs  lead  to 
the  following  conclusions.  When  alcohol  and  alcoholic  bever- 
ages are  taken  into  the  mouth,  there  is  a  direct  stimulating 
effect  upon  the  secretion  of  mixed  saliva,  increasing  at  once 
and  in  a  very  marked  degTee  the  flow  of  the  secretion.  This 
acceleration  of  secretion,  however,  is  of  brief  duration,  the  in- 
fluence passing  off  shoi-tly  after  the  alcoholic  fluid  leaves  the 
mouth  cavity.  The  stimulating  effect  of  alcohol  is  manifested 
not  only  by  an  inci'ease  in  the  outflow  of  saliva,  but  also  by  an 
increase  in  the  proportion  of  both  organic  and  inorganic  constit- 
uents, an  increase  in  the  content  of  alkaline-reacting  salts,  to- 
gether with  an  increase  in  the  starch-digesting  power  of  the  se- 
cretion. In  other  words,  human  mixed  saliva  which  is  secreted 
under  the  influence  of  an  alcoholic  stimulant  is  characterized 
by  greater  digestive  power  upon  farinaceous  foods  than  the 
fluid  secreted  under  normal  conditions.  This  stimulating  effect 
is  in  no  sense  peculiar  to  alcohol,  but  is  precisely  analogous  to 
the  action  of  many  so-called  stimulants,  such  as  weak  acids 
(vinegar),  ether  and  chloroform  vapor,  etc. 

As  stated  above,  the  stimulating  action  of  alcohol  and  alco- 
'  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1891,  xlix.  438  ;  and  1893,  liii.  544. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  163 

holic  beverages  upon  the  secretion  of  saliva  is  a  direct  one,  pro- 
duced only  when  the  alcoholic  fluid  is  in  contact  vi^ith  the  mouth 
cavity  and  passing  off  shortly  thereafter.  Thus,  it  has  been 
found  by  experiment  that  alcoholic  fluids  introduced  directly 
into  the  stomach  in  such  a  manner  as  to  do  away  with  any  local 
action  in  the  mouth  produce  no  appreciable  effect  upon  either 
the  rate  of  secretion  or  the  composition  of  the  saliva.  In  other 
words,  alcohol  absorbed  from  the  stomach  and  intestine  into 
the  general  circulation  is  without  influence  upon  the  secretion 
of  saliva ;  hence,  as  already  stated,  the  stimulating  effect  of  al- 
coholic beverages  upon  the  secretion  of  saliva  is  of  a  transitory 
nature. 

Our  conclusions  regarding  the  action  of  alcohol  as  a  direct 
stimulant  of  salivary  secretion  receive  confirmation  from  some 
recent  work  by  Dr.  Robertson,^  of  Edinburgh.  This  investi- 
gator states,  as  the  result  of  his  experiments,  that  "  in  the  form 
of  brandy  or  whiskey,  alcohol  forms  a  powerful  stimulating 
agent  in  promoting  the  flow  of  saliva.  Even  in  weak  solution 
it  acts  energetically  ;  but  the  stronger  the  alcohol  the  more 
powerful  it  is  as  a  sialogogue."  Bitter  beer  was  also  found  to 
be  a  powerful  sialogogue,  while  sherry  did  not  appear  to  pro- 
mote the  flow  of  saliva,  although  it  did  produce  a  more  abun- 
dant secretion  of  mucus. 

h.  Influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages  on  the  chem- 
ical processes  of  salivary  digestion.  In  considering  the  in- 
fluence of  alcoholic  beverages  upon  the  digestion  of  farinaceous 
foods  by  the  saliva,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  normal 
process  of  salivary  digestion  is  a  comparatively  short  one  as 
contrasted  with  the  longer  periods  of  gastric  and  pancreatic 
digestion.  The  amylaceous  foods  are  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  saliva  in  the  mouth  for  a  brief  period  only,  and  although 
salivary  digestion  is  without  doubt  continued  for  a  short  time 
in  the  stomach,  yet  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the 
active  enzj^me  of  the  saliva  is  soon  destroyed  by  the  acidity  of 
the  gastric  juice.  To  compensate,  perhaps,  for  this  shorter 
period  of  digestion,  saliva  is  ordinarily  very  powerful  in  its  ac- 
tion on  starchy  foods,  a  few  minutes  sufficing  for  the  conversion 

1  W.  G.  A.  Robertson,  "  The  salivary  digestion  of  starch  in  simple  and 
mixed  diets  :  An  Experimental  Inquiry,"  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physi- 
ology, 1898,  vol.  xxxii.  p.  615. 


134  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

of  the  available  well-cooked  starch  into  soluble  products  fitted 
for  absorption.  In  view  of  these  facts  it  is  readily  seen  that 
retardation  of  amylolytic  action  may  become  a  serious  matter, 
and  that  even  slight  retardation  of  amylolysis  may  mean  a  loss 
of  nutritive  material  to  the  body,  or  at  least  result  in  checking 
the  utilization  of  the  starchy  foods  until  they  are  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  panci'eatic  juice  in  the  small  intestine. 

Our  experiments  recorded  in  the  subjoined  report  show  quite 
conclusively  that  pure  absolute  alcohol  has  no  very  marked 
influence  on  the  digestion  of  farinaceous  foods  by  the  saliva. 
With  active  saliva  not  greatly  diluted  the  presence  of  even  five 
per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol,  equivalent  to  about  ten  per  cent,  of 
proof  spirit,  may  lead  to  a  slight  increase  in  digestive  power. 
Larger  quantities  of  alcohol  cause  retardation  of  amylolytic  ac- 
tion, but  even  ten  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  produces  only 
slight  retardation,  hardly  recognizable  in  the  solvent  action  of 
the  saliva,  but  showing  in  the  amount  of  reducing  sugar  formed, 
i.  e.,  in  the  secondary  action  of  the  saliva. 

With  strong  alcoholic  beverages,  as  whiskey  and  brandy, 
salivary  digestion  is  not  materially  retarded  in  the  presence 
of  five  per  cent,  of  the  liquors,  provided  the  saliva  is  not  too 
greatly  diluted.  Indeed,  there  may  even  be  stimulation  of 
amylolysis  under  these  conditions.  When,  however,  the  saliva 
is  greatly  diluted  or  very  weak  in  its  amylolytic  power,  then  re- 
tardation is  noticeable  even  in  the  presence  of  small  quantities 
of  these  alcoholic  beverages.  Inhibition  of  amylolysis  in  these 
cases,  our  experiments  show,  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  con- 
tained alcohol,  and  is  to  be  attributed  mainly  to  the  slight  acid- 
ity of  the  fluids.  Rum  differs  from  whiskey  and  brandy  in 
having  a  somewhat  greater  inhibitory  action,  due  simply  to  the 
greater  acidity  of  this  fluid,  and  not  connected  with  the  alcohol 
present.  Large  amounts  of  whiskey,  brandy,  and  rum  produce 
marked  retardation  ;  a  retardation,  however,  which  is  not  closely 
connected  with  the  amount  of  alcohol  the  fluids  contain,  but  is 
more  intimately  associated  with  the  presence  of  volatile,  acid- 
reacting  bodies.  In  conformity  with  this  statement,  we  find 
that  the  solid  non-volatile  matters  in  whiskey  tend  to  increase 
decidedly  the  starch-digesting  power  of  saliva. 

Wines,  as  a  class,  show  a  very  powerful  inhibitory  influence 
upon  salivary  digestion,  an  influence  which  is  due  almost  en- 


DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION.  155 

tirely  to  their  acid  properties.  Thus,  when  the  acidity  of  a 
wine  is  neutralized  with  some  alkaline  fluid,  it  loses  completely 
its  inhibitory  effect  on  salivary  digestion.  Malt  liquors  like- 
wise have  a  verj'  great  retarding  effect  upon  salivary  digestion, 
especially  when  the  saliva  is  quite  dilute.  When  the  saliva  is 
less  dilute,  then  the  retarding  action  of  the  malt  liquor  is  much 
less  pronounced.  In  all  cases,  however,  the  retarding  action  is 
due  almost  entirely  to  the  presence  of  acids  or  acid-reacting 
bodies.  Consequently,  as  stated  in  the  body  of  our  report,  we 
may  conclude  that  the  retardation  of  salivary  digestion  caused 
by  ordinary  alcoholic  drinks  is  in  character  similar  to  the  re- 
tardation which  follows  the  use  of  vinegar,  lemon-juice,  or  other 
acid  fluids  or  mixtures,  such  as  salads  highly  seasoned  with 
vinegar,  etc.,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  latter  class  are 
unquestionably  more  vigorous  in  their  retarding  action  from 
their  greater  degree  of  acidity.  We  may  indeed  quei-y  whether 
under  ordinary  circumstances  in  the  body  the  retarding  action 
of  all  these  fluids,  alcoholic  or  otherwise,  is  quite  as  great  as 
some  of  our  experiments  would  at  first  glance  indicate.  It 
must  not  be  overlooked  that  the  saliva  is  ordinarily  alkaline, 
and  with  such  an  alkaline  fluid,  aided  perhaps  by  alkaline  food, 
a  portion,  at  least,  of  the  disturbing  acid  of  the  alcoholic  bever- 
age, especially  if  the  latter  is  not  imbibed  in  too  large  quantity, 
may  be  neutralized  and  thus  deterred  from  exercising  any 
deleterious  influence.  Further,  the  widespread  use  of  efferves- 
cent table  waters,  such  as  Apollinaris  water  and  others  charged 
with  alkaline  carbonates,  as  additions  to  wines  of  the  claret  and 
hock  type,  would  likewise  lead  to  a  diminution  of  the  danger  in 
this  direction.  On  the  other  hand,  the  acid  alcoholic  bever- 
ages, especially  the  sour  wines  and  other  liquors  with  pro- 
nounced acid  reaction,  must  always  be  a  menace  to  the  thorough 
and  vigorous  digestion  of  farinaceous  foods  by  the  saliva.  This 
obviously  may  be  a  matter  of  little  moment  to  a  vigorous  per- 
son with  abundant  digestive  resources,  but  to  the  weak  and  ail- 
ing individual  with  scant  digestive  powers  it  may  be  a  matter 
of  vital  importance.  The  general  tenor  of  our  conclusions  in 
this  direction  is  in  close  harmony  with  the  observations  of  Sir 
William  Roberts.  Thus,  this  investigator  states  that  "both 
the  stronger  and  the  lighter  wines  show  a  powerful  inhibitory 
effect  on  salivary  digestion.    Even  so  small  a  proportion  as  one 


156  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

per  cent,  of  sherry  or  hock  was  found  to  paralyze  saliva  almost 
completely,  and  even  one  quarter  of  this  proportion  delayed  the 
achromatic  point  appreciably.  Claret  and  port  wine  behaved 
similarly.  The  inhibitory  effect  of  wines  is  entirely  due  to  the 
very  considerable  degree  of  acidity  vehich  they  all  possess.  .  .  . 
When  the  acidity  of  wines  is  neutralized  they  lose  entirely  their 
inhibitory  effect  on  salivary  digestion."  Further,  in  writing  of 
the  action  of  malt  liquors,  Roberts  states,  as  the  result  of  his 
experiments,  that  "  malt  liquors  were  found  to  hamper  salivary 
digestion  exactly  in  proportion  to  their  degTce  of  acidity." 
Robertson,^  in  his  recent  work  on  the  salivary  digestion  of 
starch,  reports  that  "  wines  have  a  very  marked  inhibitory  in- 
fluence-on the  digestion  of  starch  by  saliva,  and  this  is  almost 
wholly  due  to  their  acidity."  Alcohol,  he  states,  even  in  dilute 
solution,  "  retai-ds  salivary  digestion  of  starch,  but  the  action  is 
much  less  marked  than  in  the  case  of  infusions  of  tea."  Lastly, 
the  same  author  states  that  "  beer  promotes  the  salivary  diges- 
tion of  starch,"  a  conclusion  which  our  results  hardly  confirm. 
It  should  be  mentioned,  however,  that  the  character  of  the  re- 
sults to  be  expected  in  experiments  of  this  kind  must  of  neces- 
sity be  influenced  by  the  character  of  the  beer  employed,  i.  e., 
the  extent  of  its  acidity,  while  the  reaction  of  the  saliva  must 
also  be  taken  into  account. 

3.  Pancreatic  Digestion. 
While  pancreatic  digestion  normally  plays  an  exceedingly 
important  part  in  the  digestive  process  as  a  whole,  the  fact 
that  the  field  of  its  operations  is  limited  to  the  small  intestine 
makes  it  very  probable  that  alcoholic  beverages  as  ordinarily 
consumed  can  exercise  very  little  direct  influence  upon  this 
phase  of  digestion.  The  main  ground  for  this  as.sumption  lies 
in  the  fact,  already  explained,  that  alcohol  is  very  rapidly  ab- 
sorbed from  the  alimentary  tract.  Indeed,  as  previously  stated, 
alcohol,  unlike  most  other  substances,  undergoes  rapid  absorp- 
tion from  the  stomach,  the  results  of  our  experiments  clearly 
indicating  that  under  ordinary  circumstances,  at  least,  alcoholic 
fluids  taken  by  way  of  the  mouth  must  lose  the  greater  portion, 
if  not  all,  of  their  contained  alcohol  before  passing  through  the 

1  The  salivary  digestion  of  starch  in  simple  and  mixed  diets  :  "  An  Experi- 
mental Inquiry,"  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  1898,  vol.  xxxii.  p. 
615. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  157 

pyloric  orifice.  Further,  such  portions  of  alcohol  as  may  reach 
the  small  intestine  must  undergo  rapid  absorption  there,  while 
the  other  constituents  of  the  alcoholic  beverages  must  also  be 
rapidly  diminished  by  absorption.  In  view  of  these  facts,  we 
think  it  quite  plain  that  digestion  in  the  intestine  cannot  be 
materially  affected  through  any  direct  action  of  alcoholic  bever- 
ages. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  that  pancreatic  diges- 
tion may  be  indirectly  influenced  through  an  action  of  the  ab- 
sorbed alcohol  upon  the  secretion  of  pancreatic  juice  and, 
indeed,  upon  the  secretion  of  bile.  This  point,  however,  we 
have  not  attempted  to  determine,  since  there  was  little  jiromise 
of  results  of  any  value  for  the  present  inquiry.  For  various 
reasons,  however,  it  has  seemed  desirable  to  ascertain  what 
effect  alcoholic  beverages  might  have,  if  present,  upon  the  pro- 
teolytic action  of  the  pancreatic  juice,  since  this  is  one  of  the 
chief  functions  of  the  secretion.  As  to  the  influence  of  alco- 
holic fluids  upon  the  amylolytic  action  of  pancreatic  juice  there 
is  no  cause  for  special  inquiry,  since,  as  is  well  known,  the  amy- 
lolytic enzyme  of  the  pancreas  is  essentially  the  same  as  the 
enzyme  of  saliva,  hence  what  has  been  found  true  of  the  latter 
fluid  will  doubtless  apply  likewise  to  the  amylolytic  action  of 
the  pancreatic  juice. 

Influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages  on  the  digestion 
of  proteid  foods  hy  jiancreatic  juice.  The  conclusions  to  be 
drawn  from  our  experiments  under  this  head  may  be  briefly 
summarized  as  follows :  Pancreatic  juice  in  its  proteolytic  ac- 
tion is  more  sensitive  to  pure  alcohol  than  gastric  juice.  Re- 
tardation of  digestive  action  is  more  pronounced  even  with 
small  amounts  of  alcohol,  the  presence  of  even  two  to  three  per 
cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  being  sufficient  to  produce  a  distinct  re- 
tardation of  proteolysis.  Still,  as  in  the  case  of  gastric  diges- 
tion, the  exact  amount  of  retardation  is  greatly  dependent  upon 
the  digestive  power  or  concentration  of  the  pancreatic  fluid. 
When  the  amount  of  absolute  alcohol  present  in  the  digestive 
mixture  is  less  than  one  per  cent.,  the  inhibition  of  proteolytic 
action  is  very  slight,  provided  the  ferment  or  enzyme  is  fairly 
vigorous  in  its  action. 

Toward  whiskey,  brandy,  rum,  etc.,  the  pancreatic  enzyme  is 
exceedingly  sensitive,  even  small  amounts  of  whiskey  especially 
being  detrimental  to  the  digestive  action  of  pancreatic  juice  on 
proteid  foods.     Further,  the  retarding  action  of  a  given  per- 


158  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

centage  of  whiskey  is  greater  than  that  of  a  corresponding 
percentage  of  pure  alcohol,  thus  indicating  the  presence  of  an 
additional  inhibitory  substance  which  is  apparently  a  part  of 
the  solid  matter  of  the  whisiiey  and  is  connected  in  part  with 
the  acidity  of  the  fluid.  Brandy  and  rum  likewise  produce  a 
retardation  of  proteolysis  which  is  somewhat  greater  than  that 
caused  by  a  corresponding  strength  of  alcohol. 

With  wines,  pancreatic  digestion  of  proteids  is  more  strik- 
ingly inhibited  than  by  the  stronger  alcoholic  liquors.  This 
action,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  is  almost  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  content  of  alcohol  and  is  very  closely  connected 
with  the  acidity  of  the  fluid.  Thus,  a  strongly  acid  wine,  like 
a  claret  with  only  ten  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  has  a  far  greater  re- 
tarding action  on  pancreatic  proteolysis  than  a  sherry  with 
twice  that  content  of  alcohol,  but  with  less  acidity. 

Malt  liquors,  as  a  class,  likewise  exert  an  inhibitory  influ- 
ence upon  pancreatic  proteolysis,  although  far  less  pronounced 
than  that  exerted  by  wines.  The  retai'ding  action  is  due  mainly 
to  the  character  of  the  solid  or  extractive  matters  present  in  the 
liquors,  and  is  practically  unconnected  with  the  content  of  al- 
cohol. In  this  connection,  it  should  be  mentioned  that  many 
non-alcoholic  beverages  have  an  equally  pronounced  inhibitory 
action  on  pancreatic  proteolysis  owing  to  the  presence  of  certain 
inorganic  salts  and  other  extractives.  Tea  and  coffee  are  known 
to  exei't  such  an  influence,  while,  as  our  experiments  show,  or- 
dinary ginger  ale  may  produce  as  great  an  inhibition  of  pancre- 
atic proteolysis  as  a  corresponding  proportion  of  lager  beer  or 
Bass's  ale. 

Our  general  conclusions  as  to  the  action  of  alcohol  in  this 
direction  are  in  close  accord  with  the  conclusions  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Roberts,  who  has  studied  experimentally  the  effect  of  food 
accessories  on  pancreatic  digestion.  He  states  that  "  alcohol 
liad  a  distinctly  retarding  influence  when  its  proportion  in  the 
digesting  mixture  rose  to  five  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  (ten 
per  cent,  of  proof  spirit),  but  the  effect  was  comparatively 
slight.  .  .  .  When  we  consider  how  rapidly  alcohol  is  absorbed 
from  the  stomach,  it  is  obviously  almost  impossible  that  the 
chyme  in  the  duodenum  should  ever  contain  anything  like  these 
proportions  of  alcohol,  so  that  we  may  consider  that  alcohol  as 
used  dietetically  never  interferes  with  tryptic  digestion."  ^ 
'  Sir  William  Roberts,  Digestion  and  Diet,  London,  1891,  p.  158. 


III. 

DETAILED  REPORT  WITH   EXPERIMENTAL  DATA. 

The  foregoing  general  conclusions  as  to  the  influence  of  al- 
cohol and  alcoholic  fluids  on  digestion  are  based  upon  a  large 
amount  of  experimental  work  carried  out  in  the  Laboratory  of 
Physiological  Chemistry  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of 
Yale  University.  The  work  has  extended  through  several 
years,  and  has  been  rendered  possible  by  the  active  cooperation 
of  several  of  the  writers'  assistants,  viz.,  Professor  Lafayette 
B.  Mendel,  Dr.  Holmes  C.  Jackson,  and  Dr.  Alfred  N.  Eich- 
ards.  The  exjierimental  work  has  come  under  three  distinct 
heads,  viz. :  1.  A  study  of  the  influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic 
drinks  upon  the  chemical  processes  of  digestion.  2.  A  study 
of  the  influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  drinks  upon  digestion, 
with  special  reference  to  secretion.  3.  A  study  of  the  influence 
of  alcoholic  fluids  on  the  composition  and  amylolytic  j)ower  of 
human  saliva.  Since  there  has  been  much  diversity  of  opinion 
as  to  the  action  of  alcoholic  fluids  upon  digestion,  it  has  seemed 
wise  to  present  all  of  the  experimental  results  as  well  as  the  in- 
dividual data,  and  the  methods  by  which  the  results  have  been 
obtained,  and  the  writer  would  advise  all  persons  interested  in 
this  subject  to  study  carefully  this  portion  of  the  report  as  the 
surest  way  of  arriving  at  a  true  comprehension  of  the  extent  to 
which  alcohol  and  alcoholic  fluids  modify  the  various  processes 
of  digestion. 

1.  The  Influence  of  Alcohol  and  Alcoholic  Drinks  upon  the 
Chemical  Processes  of  Digestion.' 

In  attempting  any  accurate  and  complete  study  of  the  influ- 
ence of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  fluids  upon  digestion,  there  must 
be  a  clear  recognition  of  the  fact  that  no  single  line  of  experi- 

'  The  experiments  here  reported  were  originally  published  by  R.  H. 
Chittenden  and  Lafayette  B.  Mendel  in  the  American  Journal  of  the  Medical 
Sciences,  1890,  January-April. 


160  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

mentation  can  lead  to  full  and  concise  results  covering  the  whole 
ground  of  inquiry.  For  experimental  purposes,  therefore,  the 
subject  must  be  studied  under  several  distinct  heads,  as  (1)  the 
influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  drinks  upon  the  process  of 
secretion  ;  (2)  upon  the  process  of  absorption  ;  (3)  upon  peri- 
stalsis ;  and  (4)  upon  the  purely  chemical  processes  of  digestion. 
It  is  the  latter  phase  of  the  subject  we  wish  to  consider  now, 
viz. :  the  influence  of  alcohol  and  a  variety  of  alcoholic  drinks 
upon  the  digestive  action  of  the  several  digestive  fluids  and 
their  contained  ferments  or  enzymes.  Such  a  study  cannot 
properly  be  carried  out  on  animals  nor  on  human  beings,  since 
it  would  then  be  almost  impossible  to  connect  the  results  ob- 
tained with  their  true  cause.  We  must  at  first  exclude  all  of 
the  accessory  influences  connected  with  secretion,  absorption, 
and  peristalsis  if  we  are  to  learn  the  influence  of  alcoholic  drinks 
upon  digestive  action,  and  this  is  best  done  by  artificial  diges- 
tive experiments  in  which  saliva,  gastric  juice,  and  pancreatic 
juice  are  allowed  to  act  under  definite  and  constant  conditions 
upon  the  several  foodstuffs,  and  any  variations  in  activity  care- 
fully determined.  In  this  way,  and  in  this  way  only,  in  our 
opinion,  is  it  possible  to  measure  the  exact  influence  of  alcohol 
and  alcoholic  fluids  upon  digestive  action  ;  i.  e.,  upon  the  purely 
chemical  processes  of  digestion. 

Before  proceeding  f urthei',  we  would  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  in  writing  this  report  we  have  confined  ourselves  mainly  to 
a  mere  statement  of  the  results  obtained  in  our  work,  with  the 
obvious  conclusions  to  be  drawn  therefrom.  In  only  a  few 
instances  have  we  attempted  any  comparison  with  the  results 
obtained  by  other  workers  in  this  direction,  and,  as  a  rule,  we 
have  refrained  from  generalizations  other  than  those  plainly 
warranted  by  the  data  which  we  ourselves  have  obtained.  At 
the  end  of  the  report  a  short  bibliography  is  appended  giving 
the  more  important  papers  by  previous  workers. 

A.    GASTRIC    DIGESTION    (l.  E.   PEOTEOLTSIS    BY   FEPSIN-HYDRO- 
CHLOKIC   acid). 

The  solvent  action  of  gastric  juice  on  proteid  or  albumi- 
nous foods  is  due  solely  to  the  presence  of  pepsin-hydrochloric 
acid,  but  the  amount  of  both  pepsin  and  acid  in  the  natural 
secretion  varies  considerably  with  different  states  of  the  system. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  161 

The  average  amount  of  hydrochloric  acid,  however,  is  approxi- 
mately 0.2  per  cent.,  while  to  the  jjepsin  no  definite  figui-e  can 
be  given,  since  as  yet  the  chemist  has  not  been  able  to  isolate 
the  ferment  in  a  pure  state.  Further,  it  is  quite  certain  that 
both  ferment  and  acid  are  subject  to  great  variation  in  the 
amount  present  in  the  secretion  at  different  stages  of  digestion 
and  under  different  conditions  of  health  and  nutrition.  In  view 
of  these  facts  we  have  experimented  under  varying  conditions 
in  order  that  our  results  may  have  as  wide  an  application  as 
possible. 

The  methods  pursued  were  as  follows  :  — 

(cf)  Withjluid  egg-albumin.^  The  albumin  solution  was  pre- 
pared after  the  method  recommended  by  Schiitz.^  A  quantity 
of  undiluted  white  of  egg  was  freed  from  globulin  by  the  ad- 
dition of  hydrochloric  acid  of  specific  gravity  1.12  (4.2  c.  c. 
acid  to  300  c.  c.  of  albumin),  the  mixture  shaken  vigorously, 
and  after  standing  some  hours  filtered  through  paper.  The 
clear  acid  fluid  was  then  made  exactly  neutral  with  dilute  sodium 
carbonate,  after  which  it  is  ready  for  use.  Ten  c.  c.  of  this  fluid 
contain  a  little  less  than  one  gram  of  coagulable  proteid,  the 
exact  amount  being  determined  by  heat-precipitation,  collecting 
the  coagulum  on  a  weighed  filter  and  drying  at  110°  C. 

The  digestive  experiments  were  made  in  series,  each  indi- 
vidual mixture  containing  the  same  volume  of  the  prepared 
albumin  solution  (10-20  c.  c),  together  with  the  same  amount 
of  pepsin  and  acid.  The  albumin  solution  was  introduced  into 
a  small  flask  of  200  c.  c.  capacity  provided  with  a  suitable 
stopper,  water  and  alcohol,  or  alcoholic  fluid,  being  added  to 
make  the  volume  up  to  50  c.  c. 

Lastly,  50  c.  c.  of  0.4  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid,  containing 
a  known  amount  of  pepsin,  were  added,  making  tlie  total  vol- 
ume of  each  mixture  100  c.  c,  and  the  strength  of  acid  0.2  per 
cent.  HCl.  It  is  thus  evident  that  the  only  variable  element 
in  the  mixtures  of  a  given  series  is  the  amovint  of  alcohol  or 
alcoholic  fluid  present.  The  flasks  were  then  placed  in  a 
water-bath,  kept  approximately  at  the  body  temperature  (38- 
40°  C.)  for  a  definite  period  —  usually  five  to  seven  hours.     At 

1  See  R.  H.  Chittenden,  "  Observations   on  the  Digestive   Ferments," 
Medical  News,  Philadelphia,  February  16,  1889. 
*  Zeitschr.  f.  pkysiol.  Chem.,  ix.  581. 


162  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM 

the  end  of  the  allotted  time,  the  extent  of  digestive  action  was 
determined  by  simply  heating  the  mixtures  to  boiling,  neutral- 
izing the  acid  fluid  by  addition  of  an  equivalent  amount  of 
sodium  carbonate  in  a  one  per  cent,  solution,  and  collecting  the 
precipitate  of  unaltered  albumin  or  acid-albumin  on  a  weighed 
filter,  washing  it  with  boiling  water  until  free  from  chlorides, 
and  then  drying  at  110°  C.  until  of  constant  weight.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  weight  of  coagulable  albumin  introduced 
and  the  amount  found  at  the  end  of  the  experiment  gives  the 
amount  of  soluble  digestive  products,  i.  e.,  albumoses  and  pep- 
tones, formed  under  the  conditions  of  the  experiment.  In  this 
way  it  is  jiossible  to  measure  accurately  the  extent  of  proteoly- 
tic action  under  varying  conditions. 

(6)  With  coagulated  blood-fibrin.  Fresh  blood-fibrin  from 
the  blood  of  oxen  or  sheep  was  washed  with  water  until  quite 
white,  then  boiled  repeatedly  with  water,  after  which  it  was 
thoroughly  extracted  with  cold  alcohol,  boiling  alcohol,  and, 
lastly,  with  ether.  It  was  then  ground  to  a  coarse  jDowder  and 
passed  through  a  sieve,  so  constructed  that  the  particles  collected 
were  all  approximately  of  the  same  size.  The  so  prepared 
powder  was  then  dried  at  110°  C.  until  of  constant  weight. 

The  digestive  experiments  with  this  form  of  jjroteid  matter 
were  conducted  as  follows :  A  definite  amount  of  alcohol  or 
alcoholic  fluid  was  introduced  into  each  flask,  water  being  added 
to  make  the  volume  50  c.  c.  Then  50  c.  c.  of  0.4  per  cent,  hy- 
drochloric acid  containing  a  known  amount  of  pepsin  were  added, 
thus  making  the  total  volume  of  fluid  100  c.  c.  To  this  mixture 
two  grams  of  the  prepared  fibrin  were  added.  Thus,  as  in  the 
experiments  with  fluid  egg-albumin,  all  of  the  mixtures  of  a 
given  series  were  exactly  alike  in  containing  the  same  volume  of 
0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid,  the  same  amount  of  pepsin,  etc., 
but  unlike  in  the  percentage  of  alcohol  or  alcoholic  fluid  pre- 
sent. For  comparison,  one  mixture  of  each  series  contained  no 
alcohol  whatever.  When  prepared,  the  mixtures  of  a  given 
series  were  placed  in  a  bath  at  38°-40°  C.  for  two  to  three  hours, 
where  they  were  kept  under  exactly  the  same  conditions,  being 
stirred  or  shaken  to  the  same  extent,  etc.  At  the  end  of  the 
given  period  the  mixtures  were  heated  to  boiling  to  destroy  the 
ferment,  after  which  the  undigested  residue  was  collected  on  a 
weighed  filter,  washed  with  boiling  water  until  free  from  all 


DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION.  163 

soluble  matter,  then  dried  at  110°  C.  until  of  constant  weight. 
The  difference  between  the  weight  of  the  fibrin  taken  and  the 
undissolved  residue  is  a  true  measure  of  the  digestive  action 
under  the  conditions  of  the  experiment. 

Action  of  Absolute  Alcohol  (99.5-100  per  cent.). 
The  laercentages  of  alcohol  referred  to  are  percentages  by 
volume  unless  otherwise  specified.     The  pepsin  employed  was  a 
very  active  scale  pepsin  marked  1 :  4000. 

Experiment  1. 
Conditions : 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumiu  (20  c.  c). 

20  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  1.6398  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.03  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  6\i  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 


Alcohol. 
0  per  cent. 
6 

Undigested 
albumin. 
0.1850  gram. 
0.2708      " 

Proteid 

digested. 
88.8  per  cent. 
83.5 

Relative  proteolyti 
action.  1^ 

100.0 
94.0 

12 

0.5173     " 

66.7 

76.0 

18 

0.6703     " 

59.2 

66.6 

Experiment  2. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =:  fluid  egg-albumin  (15  c.  c). 
15  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  1.0522  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.0024  gram  pepsin;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  5J  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 

Alcohol. 
0  per  cent. 
1 
3 
6 

Experiment  3. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumin  (10  c.  c.). 
10  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  0.8199  gram  dry  albumin. 
0.03  gram  pepsin;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  5^  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 

'  Expressing  the  relative  extent  of  digestive  action  as  compared  with  the 
action  of  the  control  experiment,  the  latter  being  taken  as  100. 


Undigested 
albumin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0.4007  gram. 

62.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.4075     « 

61.3 

98.8 

0.5146     " 

51.1 

82.4 

0.6256     " 

40.6 

65.4 

164 


Alcohol. 
0  per  cent. 
1 
3 
5 
8 
10 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


trace 

0.0100  gram. 
0.0130     " 
0.0250     " 
0.0699     " 
0.0875     " 


100.0  per  cent. 


98.5 
97.0 
91.5 
89.4 


Relative  proteolytic 
action. 
100.0 

98.8 

98.5 

97.0 

91.5 

89.4 


Experiment  4. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumin  (20  c.  c). 
20  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  1.9198  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.03  gram  pepsin;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  5^  hours  at  38°— 10°  C. 


Alcohol 

Undigested 
albumin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolyt 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.0887  gram. 

95.4  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

0.0740     " 

96.1 

100.8 

5        " 

0.2617     " 

86.4 

90.5 

10 

0.5373     « 

72.0        " 

75.5 

15 

0.5859     « 

69.5        " 

72.8 

Experiment  5. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =r  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2\  hours  at  38°-10°  C. 

Alcohol. 

0  per  cent. 

1 

3 

5 

The  following  five  series  of  experiments  were  all  made  after 
the  same  plan,  each  mixture  containing  2  grams  of  blood-fibrin, 
0.016  gram  pepsin  in  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
warmed  at  38°-40°  C.  for  21  hours  :  — 


Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolj^ic 
action. 

0.5834  gram. 

70.9  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.5727     " 

71.4 

100.7 

0.6273     " 

68.7 

96.8 

0.6493     " 

67.6 

95.3 

0  per  cent. 
10        « 


Experiment  6. 


0.3676  gram. 
0.6970'    " 


81.7  per  cent. 
70.2 


Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 
85,9 


1  Filtered  very  slowly  and  could  not  be  washed  thoroughly  ;  hence,  the 
result  is  only  approximately  correct. 


0  per  cent. 
5 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 

Experiment  7. 

Undigested  Proteid 

fibrin.  digested. 

0.2013  gram.  90.0  per  cent- 

0.2601     "  87.0        " 

Experiment  8. 


Relative  proteolytii 
action. 

100.0 
96.6 


0  per  cent. 
6 


0  per  cent. 
5 


0.1759  gram. 
0.2145     « 


91.3  per  cent. 
89.3 


Experiment  9. 


fibrin. 

0.2027  gram. 
0.2619     " 


89.9  per  cent. 
87.0 


100.0 
97.8 


100.0 
96.7 


0  per  cent. 
4 


Experiment  10. 

Undigested  Proteid 

fibrin.  digested. 

0.3881  gram.  80.6  per  cent. 

0.4118     "  79.5 


Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 
98.6 


In  the  following  three  experiments  the  conditions  were  the 
same  as  in  the  preceding,  excepting  that  the  mixtures  were 
warmed  at  38°-40°  C.  for  2  hours  instead  of  2|  hours :  — 


Experiment 

11. 

Alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.5315  gram. 

73.5  per  cent. 

100.0 

2 

0.5390     " 

73.1 

99.4 

Experiment 

12. 

Alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.4630  gram. 

76.9  per  cent. 

100.0 

2 

0.4583     " 

77.1 

100.2 

Experiment 

13. 

Alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 

digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.1970  gram. 

90.2  per  cent. 

100.0 

5 

0.2830     « 

85.9 

95.2 

In  the  following  three  experiments  the  conditions  were  the 
same  as  in  the  preceding,  except  that  the  mixtures  were  warmed 
at  38°-40'=  C.  for  1|  hours  :  — 


Experiment  14. 

Alcohol, 
0  per  cent. 
2 

Undigested                         Proteid 
fibrin.                            digested. 
0.50G8  gram.          74.7  per  cent. 
0.4970     "              75.2 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 

100.0 
100.6 

166 


Alcohol. 
0  per  cent. 
5 


Alcohol. 
0  per  cent. 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 
Experiment  15. 

Proteid 
digested. 

89.9  per  cent. 

88.5 


0.2032  gram. 
0.2317     " 


Experiment  16. 

Proteid 
fibrin.  digested. 

0.32-17  gram.  SS.*  per  cent. 

0.355-1     "  82.3 


Relative  proteolytic 
actiou. 

100.0 

98.2 


In  the  following  two  experiments  the  mixtures  were  warmed 
at  38°-40°  C.  for  1,1-  hours:  — 


Experiment 

17. 

Alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3361  gram. 

83.2  percent. 

100.0 

5 

0.4040     " 

79.8 

95.9 

Experiment 

18. 

Alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3867  gram. 

80.7  per  cent. 

100.0 

5 

0.4352     " 

78.3 

97.0 

In  the  following  experiment  the  conditions  were  apparently 
much  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiments,  although  the 
results  show  a  greater  degree  of  retardation  with  like  per- 
centages of  alcohol :  — 

Experiment  19. 
Conditions  :  — 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.02  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  bydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  24  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 


Alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.4536  gram. 

77.32  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.5 

0.4688     " 

76.56 

99.0 

1.0 

0.4954     " 

75.23 

97.2 

2.0 

0.4958     " 

75.21 

97.2 

3.0 

0.5324     " 

73.38 

94.9 

5.0 

0.6031     « 

69.84        " 

90.3 

A  carefid  study  of  all  the  preceding  results  makes  it  evident 
that  we  cannot  define  with  mathematical  exactness  the  action 
of  a  given  percentage  of  absolute  alcohol  on  pepsin-proteolysis, 
since  variations  in  the  attendant  conditions,  i.  e.,  the  relative 
amounts  of  pepsin,  acid,  and  proteid,  together  with  the  period 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  167 

of  digestion,  the  digestibility  of  the  particular  proteid,  etc., 
are  proue  to  modify  the  final  result.  Thus,  with  a  weak  gas- 
tric juice,  where  the  amount  of  ferment  present  is  small  and 
digestive  action  consequently  slow,  or  where  the  proteid  material 
used  is  difficult  of  digestion,  the  retarding  effect  of  a  given 
percentage  of  alcohol  is  far  greater  than  when  the  digestive 
fluid  is  more  active  ;  that  is,  when  it  contains  more  pepsin. 
(Contrast  Experiments  1,  2,  and  3.)  Further,  this  difference 
of  action  is  more  pronounced  the  larger  the  percentage  of 
alcohol  present.  Thus,  in  Expei'iments  2  and  3,  where  the 
difference  in  the  amount  of  pepsin  present  is  very  great,  the  ac- 
tion of  one  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  is  essentially  the 
same  ;  but  when  the  amount  of  alcohol  is  raised  to  three,  five, 
or  six  per  cent.,  then  the  difference  in  digestive  action  is  very 
striking. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  possibility  of  these  variations  incidental 
to  variations  in  the  attendant  conditions,  and  recognizing  the 
possibility  and  probability  of  just  such  valuations  in  the  human 
stomach,  we  may  look  at  our  results  with  a  view  to  drawing 
some  general  conclusions.  First,  it  is  plainly  manifest  that  in 
the  presence  of  small  amounts  of  alcohol  (from  one  to  two  per 
cent,  of  absolute  alcohol)  gastric  digestion  may  proceed  as  well 
or  even  better  than  under  normal  circumstances.  In  fact,  many 
of  our  experiments  show  a  slight  increase  in  digestive  power 
when  the  mixture  contains  one  or  two  per  cent,  of  absolute 
alcohol.  This  increased  digestive  action,  though  slight,  occurs 
too  frequently  to  be  tlie  result  of  mere  accident,  and  apparently 
indicates  a  tendency  for  alcohol,  when  present  in  small  quan- 
tity, to  increase  slightly  the  digestive  action  of  pepsin-hydro- 
chloric acid  ;  or,  in  other  words,  to  so  stinnilate  the  ferment 
that  it  can  accomplish  somewhat  more,  under  given  conditions, 
than  it  otherwise  could  do.  As  the  percentage  of  alcohol  is 
raised,  retardation  or  inhibition  becomes  more  noticeable,  al- 
though ordinarily  it  is  not  very  pronounced  until  the  digestive 
mixture  contains  five  to  ten  per  cent,  or  more  of  absolute  alcohol. 
With  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol, 
digestive  action  may  be  reduced  one  quarter  or  even  one  third, 
the  exact  amount  of  retardation,  however,  being  especially  de- 
pendent upon  the  strength  or  activity  of  the  gastric  juice  and 
upon  the  natural  digestibility  of  the  proteid  material.     (See 


168  THE  LIQUOR  PEOBLEM. 

Experiments  1,  3,  4,  and  6.)  It  is  to  be  remembered,  however, 
that  eighteen  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  would  be  equivalent 
to  thirty-six  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit,  so  that  if  we  should  as- 
sume the  contents  of  a  human  stomach  at  a  given  period  to  be 
one  third  proof  spirit,  it  might  perhaps  be  considered  that  diges- 
tive action  would  be  retarded  to  the  extent  of  from  twenty-five 
to  thirty-five  per  cent.,  provided  the  gastric  juice  present  in  the 
stomach  was  of  fair  strength  and  the  proteid  matter  of  ordinary 
digestibility.  Such  percentages  of  proof-spirit,  however,  ai'e 
not  likely  to  be  long  present  in  the  stomach,  and  it  is  perhaps 
idle  to  speculate  on  such  hypothetical  cases.  We  may  in  this 
connection,  however,  again  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  stronger 
the  gastric  juice  and  the  more  digestible  the  proteid  food  under- 
going digestion  the  less  retardation  will  a  given  percentage  of 
alcohol  produce,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  weaker  the  gastric 
juice  and  the  moi-e  indigestible  the  proteid  the  greater  will  be 
the  inhibition  caused  by  a  given  percentage  of  alcohol.  In 
other  words,  those  variations  which  must  naturally  exist  in  the 
stomach-contents  of  different  individuals,  both  in  health  and 
disease,  will  lead  to  different  degrees  of  retardation  in  the  pre- 
sence of  given  percentages  of  absolute  alcohol.  It  would,  there- 
foi"e,  be  unwise  to  make  a  general  specific  statement  regarding 
the  action  of  a  given  percentage  of  alcohol.  Under  definite 
conditions,  however,  as  our  experiments  plainly  show,  the  pre- 
sence of  a  definite  amount  of  alcohol  always  leads  to  essentially 
the  same  results. 

In  order  to  prevent  any  misinterpretation  of  these  results,  we 
would  again  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  we  are  dealing  here 
with  only  one  of  the  four  questions  that  need  to  be  answered 
before  we  can  hope  to  fully  understand  the  influence  of  alcohol 
on  gastric  digestion  as  a  whole.  Thus,  our  results  afford  plain 
evidence  of  the  influence  of  alcohol  on  the  digestive  or  solvent 
power  of  the  gastric  juice,  but  we  should  not  be  justified  in  ar- 
guing that  exactly  the  same  results  would  follow  from  the  in- 
troduction of  alcohol  into  the  living  stomach.  The  action  of  a 
given  percentage  of  alcohol  on  ^proteolysis  alone  would  be  essen- 
tially the  same  in  the  stomach  as  in  a  beaker,  provided  the 
alcohol  was  not  absorbed  into  the  blood  and  thus  removed  from 
contact  with  the  digestive  mixture,  and  provided  it  did  not  exert 
any  influence  on   the  character  of   the  gastric  juice  secreted. 


DIGESTION   AND   SECRETION.  169 

But  it  is  easily  conceivable  that  a  percentage  of  alcohol  which 
does  not  interfere  with  solution  of  the  proteid  foodstuffs  may  so 
modify  the  amount  or  character  of  the  secretion  that  digestion 
might  be  greatly  stimulated  or  greatly  retarded.  Further,  as 
already  stated,  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  stomach  may  so 
affect  absorption  and  peristalsis  that  the  rate  of  digestion  may 
be  modified  from  these  causes  ;  hence,  the  results  above  recorded 
are  to  be  used  only  in  drawing  conclusions  as  to  the  effect  of 
various  percentages  of  alcohol  on  the  purely  chemical  process 
of  gastric  digestion,  i.  e.,  on  pepsin-proteolysis. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  our  results  are  more  or 
less  in  accord  with  what  has  been  previously  published  concern- 
ing the  action  of  alcohol  on  gastric  digestion.  Thus,  Bikfalvi  i 
found  in  artificial  digestive  experiments  that  alcohol,  even  in 
small  quantities,  retards  normal  gastric  digestion.  Klikowicz  ^ 
found  that  the  jiresence  of  five  per  cent,  of  alcohol  in  the  diges- 
tion of  egg  and  serum-albumin  led  to  somewhat  variable  results, 
although,  as  a  rule,  there  was  an  indication  of  a  slight  stimula- 
tion of  proteolytic  action.  In  the  presence  of  ten  per  cent,  of 
alcohol  there  was  always  marked  retardation,  while  fifteen, 
twenty,  and  thirty  per  cent,  of  alcohol  checked  digestion  to  a 
marked  degree. 

Roberts  found  by  artificial  digestion-experiments  that  in  the 
presence  of  less  than  ten  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit  there  was  no 
appreciable  retardation.  With  ten  per  cent.,  retardation  was 
only  barely  detectable.  With  twenty  per  cent.,  there  was  quite 
distinct,  but  still  only  a  slight,  retardation.  Above  this  point, 
however,  the  inhibitory  effect  of  alcohol  increased  rapidly.^ 

That  the  action  of  a  digestive  ferment  may  be  both  stimu- 
lated and  retarded  by  the  same  substance,  according  to  the 
quantity  present,  has  been  already  demonstrated  ;  *  hence  there 
is  no  inconsistency  in  the  above  results  with  alcohol.  The  same 
action  has  likewise  been  observed  with  yeast-cells.^ 

1  Jahreshericht  fiir  Thierchemie,  xv.  273. 

^   Virchovfs  Archiv,  cii.  376. 

'  Digestion  and  Diet,  p.  132. 

*  Chittenden,  Studies  in  Physiological  Chemistry,  Yale  Univer.,  vol.  i. 
p.  76;  also  vol.  iii.  p.  60.     Dubs,  Virchow's  Archiv,  cxxxiv.  519-540. 

'  Schultz,  P/liiger's  Archiv,  slii.  617.  Biernacki,  Jahreshericht  fiir  Thier- 
chemie, xvii.  477. 


170  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Action  of  WTiiskey. 

Pure  whiskey,  as  is  well  known,  is  simply  "  a  diluted  alcohol 
with  a  peculiar  flavor  or  aroma,  due  to  the  raw  material  em- 
ployed in  its  manufacture,  and  developed  during  the  fermenta- 
tion, distillatiou,  and  aging  of  the  liquor."  ^ 

Analysis  of  a  large  number  of  samples  of  whiskey  made 
under  the  direction  of  the  New  York  State  Board  of  Health  ^ 
has  shown  that  adulteration  is  limited  mainly  to  the  addition  of 
water  and  coloring  matter,  while  such  deleterious  substances  as 
fusel  oils  may  be  present  in  liquors  which  have  not  been  pro- 
perly rectified.  Thus,  the  percentage  of  alcohol  was  found  to 
vary  from  28.9  per  cent,  by  volume  to  60.3  per  cent.  By  far 
the  larger  number  of  samples  analyzed  showed  a  content  of  al- 
cohol ranging  from  thirty  five  to  forty  per  cent,  by  volume. 

Our  work  on  the  influence  of  whiskey  on  gastric  digestion 
was  commenced  by  studying  the  influence  of  a  medium  quality 
of  rye  whiskey  (Mount  Vernon  pui-e  rye  whiskey,  one  dollar 
per  quart),  analysis  of  which  gave  the  following  results :  — 

Specific  gravity         0.937  at  17.5°  C. 

Alcohol,  by  volume 50-51  per  cent.' 

Solid  residue  at  110°  C 0.3284  gram  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.0040     "  "        " 

Reaction  acid. 

Experiment  20. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumin  (10  c.  c). 
10  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  0.8146  gram  dry  albumin. 
0.03  gram  pepsin;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  4^  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 

Undigested  Proteid  Relative  proteolytic 

WhisKey.                           albumin.                            digested.  action. 

0  per  cent.  0.0182  gram.  97.8  per  cent.  100.0 

3        «  0.0176     "  97.9        "  100.1 

5        "  0.0288     "  96.6        "  98.7 

8        "  0.0284     "  96.6        "  98.7 

10        "  0.0384     "  95.3        "  97.4 

'  -Second  Annual  Report  of  the  New  York  State  Board  of  Health,  p.  642. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  647,  648. 

'  Varying  somewhat  in  different  samples. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 

Experiment  21. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  ^=  fluid  egg-albumin  (10  c.  c.). 
10  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  0.8146  gram  dry  albumin. 
0.012  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  6  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Whiskey. 
0  per  cent. 
1 

Undigested 
albumiu. 
0.0270  gram. 
0.0231      " 

Proteid 
digested. 
90.7  per  cent. 
97.2 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 
100.0 
100.5 

3 

0.0333     " 

96,0 

99.2 

5 

0.0393     « 

95.2 

98.4 

8 

0.0616     " 

92.5 

95.6 

10 

0.0774     " 

90.5 

93.5 

Experiment  22. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumin  (15  c.  c). 

15  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  1.0522  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.0024  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  h\  hours  at  38°^0"  C. 


Whiskey. 

Undigested 
albumin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.4007  gram. 

62.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

0.4263     " 

59.5 

95.9 

3 

0.4545     " 

56.9 

91.7 

6 

0.5372     " 

49.0 

79.0 

Absolute  alcohol. 

3  per  cent. 

0.5146     " 

51.1 

82.4 

Experiment  23. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  ^  blood-flbrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2|  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Whiskey. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Eelat 

ive  proteolyti 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3401  gram. 

83.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

0.3357     " 

83.3 

100.3 

3 

0.3401     " 

83.0 

100.0 

6 

0.3678     " 

81.7        « 

98.4 

Experiment  24. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment : 

Fluid  Undigested  Proteid  Relative  proteolytic 

added.                                    fibrin.                            digested.  action, 

0  per  cent.                             0.2013  gram.          90.0  per  cent.  100.0 

5        «        absol.  alcoh.     0.2601     "             87.0        "  96.6 

5        "        whiskey             0.2312     "             88.5        "  98.3 


172  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

In  the  following  experiment  six  different  samples  of  whiskey 
were  employed,  several  of  which  were  known  to  contain  only 
forty  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  and  their  action  contrasted  with  half 
the  percentage  of  absolute  alcohol :  — 

Experiment  25. 
Couditious  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.009  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  11^  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 


Whiskey. 

Uudigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 

action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.C701  gram. 

66.5  per  cent. 

100.0 

20 

0.9659     " 

51.8 

77.8 

20 

0.9849     " 

50.8 

76.3 

20 

1.0378     " 

48.2 

72.4 

20 

1.0156     " 

49.3 

74.1 

20 

1.0390     " 

48.1 

72.3 

20 

1.0735     " 

46.4 

69.7 

solute  alcohol. 

10  per  cent. 

1.0673     " 

46.7 

70.2 

It  is  thus  evident  from  these  experiments  that  when  digestive 
action  is  fairly  vigorous,  as  in  the  presence  of  moderate  amounts 
of  pepsin  (Experiments  20,  21,  and  23),  small  percentages  of 
whiskey  have  no  retarding  action  whatever  upon  gastric  di- 
gestion ;  indeed,  there  is  even  a  slight  suggestion  of  increased 
digestive  action  in  the  presence  of  from  one  to  three  per  cent, 
of  whiskey,  much  the  same  as  was  observed  in  the  exj)eriments 
with  absolute  alcohol.  In  the  presence  of  twenty  per  cent,  of 
whiskey  digestive  activity  may  be  reduced  one  fourth.  Fur- 
ther, the  retardation  which  is  produced  by  larger  percentages  of 
whiskey  is  approximately  equal  to  the  retarding  action  caused 
by  half  these  percentages  of  absolute  alcohol.  In  other  words, 
the  resiUts  would  seemingly  point  to  the  contained  alcohol  as 
the  main  cause  of  the  inhibition  produced  by  the  whiskey.  In 
Experiment  22  we  again  have  evidence  of  the  greater  retarding 
effect  of  both  whiskey  and  alcohol  when  the  gastric  juice  is 
weak,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  small  amount  of  pepsin. 

In  order  to  determine  more  definitely  the  exact  cause  of  the 
inhibitory  action  of  whiskey  on  gastric  digestion  the  following 
experiments  were  tried  :  — 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


173 


Experiment  26. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid=  fluid  egg-albutain  (15  c.  c.). 

15  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  1.0522  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.0024  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  6f  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Whiakey. 

0  per  cent. 
1 

3 
6 

Whiskey  residue.^ 

1  per  cent. 
6 


Undigested 
albumin. 

0.5065  gram. 
0.5268     « 
0.5496     " 
0.6069     " 

0.5105     " 
0.4719     " 


Proteid 
digested. 

51.9  per  cent. 

50.0 

47.8 

42.4 

51.5 
55.2 


Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 
96.3 
92.1 
81.6 

99.2 
106.3 


Experiment  27. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  Experiment  25,  except  that  the 
15  c.  c.  of  albumin  solution  contained  1.2219  grams  of  dry  al- 
bumin, and  the  period  of  digestion  was  4^'^  hours :  — 


Whiskey. 

Undigested 
albumin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.5552  gram. 

54.6  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

0.6239     " 

49.0 

89.7 

3 

0.6573     " 

46.2 

84.6 

6 

0.6883     " 

43.7 

80.0 

9 

0.7457     « 

39.0        « 

71.4 

Whiskey  residue. 

1  per  cent. 

0.5559     " 

64.6        « 

100.0 

6 

0.5705     " 

63.4        « 

97.8 

Experiment  28. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion,  2 J  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 

Fluid  Undigested  Proteid 

digested. 

91.3  per  cent. 

89.3 

90.8        " 


0  per  cent.  0.1759  gram. 

6         "     absol.  alcoh.  0.2145     " 

5        "     whiskey  residue   0.1847     " 


Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 

97.8 

99.4 


'  The  whiskey  residue  was  prepared  by  simply  concentrating  a  definite 
volume  of  whiskey  on  the  water-bath  until  the  alcohol  and  volatile  matter 
were  driven  off,  then  making  the  residue  up  to  tlie  original  volume  with 
water.  Hence,  one  per  cent,  residue  means  the  residue  contained  in  one  per 
cent,  of  whiskey. 


174  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Experiment  29. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except 
that  the  period  of  digestion  was  1 1  hours  :  — 

Fluid  Undigfested  Proteid  Relative  proteolytic 


0  per  cent.                              0.2032  gram.      89.9  per  cent.  100.0 

5        "     alcohol                  0.2317     "          88.5        "  98.4 

10        "     whiskey                0.2181     "           89.1         «  99.1 

10         "          "      distil.i      0.2499     "           87.6        "  97.4 

10        "          "      residue      0.2002     "           90.0        "  100.1 

Experiment  30. 

Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except 
that  the  period  of  digestion  was  two  hours  :  — 


Fluid 

Undigested 

Proteid 

Relative  proteolyti 

added. 

fibrin. 

digested. 

action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.1970  gram. 

90.2  per  cent. 

100.0 

5        "    alcohol 

0.2830     " 

85.9 

95.2 

10         "    whiskey 

0.3056     « 

84.8 

94.0 

10         "          "       distil. 

0.2336     " 

88.4 

98.0 

10        "         "       residue 

0.2027     " 

89.9 

99.6 

Experiment  31. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except 
that  the  period  of  digestion  was  l^^^  hours  :  — 


Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3867  gram. 

80.7  per  cent. 

100.0 

5        "    absol.  alcoh. 

0.4352     " 

78.3 

97.0 

10         "    whiskey 

0.4481     " 

77.6 

96.1 

10         "          "     distil. 

0.4274     " 

78.7 

97.5 

10         "          "     residue 
dissolved  in  water 

} 

0.4968     " 

75.2 

93.1 

10  per  cent,  residue  dis- 
solved in  alcohol  ^ 

I 

0.3604     " 

82.0 

101.6 

If  the  detailed  results  obtained  in  these  many  experiments 
are  carefully  scrutinized  it  will  be  seen  that  the  small  amount 
of  solid  matter  contained  in  whiskey  —  the  so-called  whiskey 

^  The  "  whiskey  distillate  "  was  prepared  by  distilling  a  definite  volunie 
of  whiskey  nearly  to  dryness  and  making  the  distillate  up  to  the  original 
volume  with  water,  the  ten  per  cent,  whiskey  distillate,  therefore,  meaning 
the  volatile  matter  contained  in  that  specific  volume  of  whiskey. 

-  The  whiskey  residue  obtained  as  already  described,  but  dissolved  in  al- 
cohol of  the  strength  originally  present  in  the  whiskey  instead  of  in  water. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  175 

residue  —  has  in  the  majority  of  cases  little  or  no  retarding 
action  on  gastric  digestion.  That  there  should  be  some  varia- 
tion is  to  be  expected,  owing  to  possible  variations  in  the  amount 
and  character  of  this  solid  matter.  Further,  the  residue  ob- 
tained by  evaporation  of  whiskey  is  not  always  completely  solu- 
ble in  water,  and  the  action  of  this  material  may  naturally  be 
somewhat  different  wlien  mixed  with  water  than  when  dissolved 
in  alcohol  (see  Experiment  31).  Still  the  general  conclusion 
seems  to  be  wai-ranted  that,  as  a  rule,  the  solid  matter  of  the 
whiskey  is  not  responsible  for  the  retarding  action  of  this  fluid 
upon  the  chemical  process  of  gastric  digestion.  Such  action  as 
the  whiskey  possesses  is  to  be  attributed  mainly  to  the  alcohol 
or  other  volatile  matter  it  contains.  At  the  same  time  it  is  to 
be  noted  that  with  a  fairly  active  gastric  juice  (Experiments 
29,  30,  and  31),  the  amount  of  retardation  even  with  ten  jier 
cent,  of  whiskey  is  not  great,  any  more  than  it  is  in  the  presence 
of  five  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol.  When,  however,  the  gas- 
tric juice  is  very  weak  from  scarcity  of  the  active  ferment,  as  in 
Experiments  26  and  27,  then  even  small  amounts  of  whiskey 
exercise  a  very  marked  retarding  effect  upon  the  digestive  pro- 
cess. Further,  these  two  experiments  plainly  show  that  the 
retardation  in  these  cases  is  due  essentially  to  the  volatile 
matter  of  the  whiskey,  and  not  to  the  solid  matter  contained 
in  it.  We  may  thus  conclude,  with  Roberts,^  that  taking  into 
account  the  quantity  of  whiskey  commonly  used  dietetically 
with  meals,  the  amount  so  consumed  is  not  sufficient  to  appreci- 
ably retard  the  speed  of  gastric  digestion.  For,  if  the  digesting 
mass  in  the  stomach  be  estimated  at  two  pounds,  a  wineglass 
(two  ounces)  of  whiskey  added  thereto  would  only  equal  five 
per  cent,  of  proof  spirit  (or  2.5  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol)  an 
amount  too  small  to  hamper  digestion  to  any  appreciable  extent. 
Even  double  such  an  amount,  as  Roberts  says,  would  scarcely 
have  any  marked  retarding  effect  upon  pepsin-proteolysis. 
Hence,  whiskey  can  be  considered  to  impede  the  solvent  action 
of  the  gastric  juice  only  when  taken  immoderately  and  in  in- 
toxicating quantities. 

So  much  has  been  said  and  written  about   the  widespread 
adulteration  and  falsification  of  whiskeys    that  we  deemed   it 
wise  before  leaving  the  subject  to  make  a  search  for  samples  of 
1  Digestion  and  Diet,  p.  133. 


176  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

this  liquor  which  would  show  a  wide  variation  from  what  might 
be  called  the  normal  standard.  The  results  thus  far  reported 
were  obtained  with  whiskeys  containing  fifty  per  cent,  of  alco- 
hol by  volume.  Pi'ofessor  James  Babcock,  in  his  first  and  sec- 
ond annual  report  as  assayer  of  liquors  to  the  commonwealth  of 
Massachusetts,  gives  the  strength  of  257  samples  of  ordinary 
whiskey  analyzed  by  him  as  varying  from  thirty  to  fifty-nine 
per  cent,  of  alcohol  by  volume.  The  few  samples  that  we  have 
purchased  in  New  Haven  and  analyzed,  however,  have,  with 
one  or  two  exceptions,  shown  very  little  difference  in  their  con- 
tent of  alcohol,  although  we  took  particular  pains  to  obtain 
them  from  representative  places.  The  character  of  these  places 
may  be  indicated  by  their  names. 

Alcohol. 

Sample  A,  from  high-class  grocer 50  per  cent. 

"       B,     "      Canadian  Club  whiskey       ....  42 

"        C,     "      saloon  of  better  class 40 

"        D,    "  "       of  low  order 44 

"       E,     "  "       of  low  order 43 

"       F,     "  "       known  as  the  "  dead-house "  .  42 

"       G,     "  "       known  as  "  Sneezer's "       .     .  40 

"       H,     "  "       quite  respectable 40 

"       I,      "  "       McGraw's 30 

With  the  exception  of  the  first  and  last  of  these  few  samples 
there  is  very  little  variation  in  the  content  of  alcohol.  Diges- 
tion experiments  tried  with  some  of  these  whiskeys  gave  the 
following  results :  — 

Experiment  32. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.015  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  1^  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 

^T^.  ,  Uiifligested  Proteid       Relative  proteolytic 

nnisKey.  fibrin.  digested.  action. 

0  per  cent.  0.6131  gram.  69.4  per  cent.  100.0 

Sample  I,  10        "  0.6591     "  67.1         "  96.6 

B,  10        "  0.6876     "  65.7        '■  94.6 

"       G,  10        "  0.7469     "  62.7        "  90.3 

Experiment  33. 
Conditions  practically  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experi- 
ment :  — 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  177 

Fluid  Undigested  Proteid      Relative  proteolytic 

added.  iibriu.  digested.  action. 

0  per  cent.  0.5945  gram.  70.3  per  cent.        100.0 

Whiskey  D,  10  «  0.7711  "  64.5  «  91.7 

C,  10  «  0.7352  "  63.3  "  90.0 

«'        F,  10  "  0.7609  "  62.0  "  88.1 

"        E,  10  "  0.8086  «  59.6  «  84.7 

«'        H,  10  "  0.8659  "  56.8  "  80.7 

Absol.  alcoh.    5  "  0.8362  «  58.2  "  82.7 

If  we  compare  the  action  of  these  samples  of  whiskeys,  we 
see  (Experiment  32)  that  sample  I,  with  the  lowest  content  of 
alcohol,  has  the  least  inhibitory  effect.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
Experiment  33  there  are  greater  differences  in  the  retardation 
produced  by  these  several  varieties  of  whiskey  than  one  would 
expect  from  the  slight  variations  in  the  content  of  alcohol. 
This,  however,  we  are  inclined  to  attribute,  in  part  at  least,  to 
the  presence  of  variable  amounts  of  tannin.  In  accordance 
with  this  idea,  we  found  that  among  those  samples  with  a  like 
content  of  alcohol  the  presence  of  tannin  was  more  conspicuous 
in  the  whiskeys  with  the  greatest  retarding  action. 

Action  of  So-called  Fusel  Oils  on  Gastric  Digestion. 
So  much  has  been  written  concerning  the  contamination  of 
whiskeys  and  other  liquors  with  fusel  oil  that  we  deemed  it 
wise  to  give  some  thought  to  this  matter  in  connection  with  our 
study  of  the  influence  of  whiskey,  brandy,  and  other  liquors  on 
the  chemical  processes  of  gastric  digestion.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  when  fermented  saccharine  liquors  are  submitted  to 
distillation  there  are  obtained,  in  addition  to  water  and  ordinary 
or  ethyl  alcohol,  small  quantities  of  other  alcohols,  which  are 
commonly  known  as  fusel  oil.  Each  raw  material  used  in  the 
preparation  of  a  distilled  liquor  is  supposed  to  have  its  own 
particular  form  of  fusel  oil.  Hence,  there  is  the  potato  fusel 
oil,  sugar-beet  fusel  oil,  rye  fusel  oil,  corn  fusel  oil,  grape  fusel 
oil,  etc.,  which  contain  in  various  proportions  propyl,  butyl, 
amyl  alcohol,  etc.  Of  these  alcohols,  amyl  alcohol  is  said  to  be 
the  most  poisonous,  and  it  is  generally  understood  to  be  present 
in  largest  quantity  in  the  whiskeys  made  from  the  potato. 
However  this  may  be,  the  various  constituents  of  these  fusel 
oils  react  upon  each  other  during  the  process  of  aging,  forming 
new  and  more  volatile  combinations  which  help  give  to  the  re- 
spective fluids  their  aroma  and  bouquet.     Hence,  in  old  whis- 


178 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


keys  fusel  oils  should  be  entirely  absent,  and  in  all  properly 
distilled  and  rectified  spirits  the  amount  of  these  substances 
should  be  at  the  most  quite  small.  Indeed,  so  far  as  our  own 
experience  goes,  we  have  never  found  more  than  traces  of  these 
so-called  oils  in  the  whiskeys  or  brandies  that  we  have  examined. 
But  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  the  effect  of  such  substances  on 
gastric  digestion,  assuming  them  to  be  present  in  whiskeys  and 
other  like  liquors,  we  have  tried  some  experiments  with  the  al- 
cohols of  this  class,  in  order  to  ascertain  how  their  possible 
presence  would  influence  the  chemical  processes  of  digestion. 
The  results  may  be  briefly  detailed  in  the  following  experi- 
ments :  ^  — 

Experiment  34. 
Conditions : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.02  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 


Amyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.566o  gram. 

71.6  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.10 

0.5316     " 

73.1 

102.4 

0.25 

0.6176     " 

69.1 

96.4 

0.50 

0.6179     " 

69.1 

96.4 

1.00 

0.6887     " 

65.5 

91.4 

2.00        " 

0.8801     « 

55.9 

78.1 

Experiment  35. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiments,  except 
that  the  period  of  digestion  was  If  hours  :  — 


iBobutyl 
alcohol. 

0  per  cent. 
0.05 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

0.7225  grjim. 

0.6580     " 

Proteid 
digested. 

63.8  per  cent. 

67.1 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 
105.0 

0.10 

0.7583     " 

62.0 

97.1 

0.25 

0.7993     " 

60.0 

93.9 

0.50 

0.8313     « 

58.4 

91.4 

2.00 

0.8451     " 

57.7        " 

90.4 

'  These  experiments  were  carried  out  in  our  laboratory  by  Richard  F. 
Rand,  Ph.  B. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  179 

Experiment  36. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment :  — 


Propyl 
alcohol. 
0  per  ceut. 
0.05 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

0.6136  gram 
0.5514     " 

Proteid 
digested. 

69.3  per  cent. 
72.4 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 
104.4 

0.10 

0.5025     « 

74.8 

lOS.O 

0.25 

0.4944     " 

75.2 

108.5 

0.50 

0.5872     " 

70.6        " 

101.9 

2.00 

0.6192     « 

69.0 

99.5 

Larger  percentages  of  propyl  alcoliol  gave  the  following  re- 
sults, the  conditions  being  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experi- 
ment, except  that  the  period  of  digestion  was  2^  hours :  — 


Propyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 

0  per  ceut. 

0.5323  gram. 

73.3  per  cent. 

100.0 

5 

0.7804     " 

60.9 

82.1 

10 

1.6271     " 

18.6 

24.0 

15        « 

1.8829     « 

5.8 

9.0 

20 

1.9047     " 

4.7 

6.4 

Experiment  37. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiments,  save 
that  the  period  of  digestion  was  2^  hours :  — ■ 


Methyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.4892  gram. 

75.5  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.5 

0.4492     " 

77.5 

102.6 

2.0 

0.4325     " 

78.3 

103.7 

3.0 

0.5381     " 

73.0        " 

96.7 

5.0 

0.5333     " 

73.3 

97.0 

When  it  is  remembered  that  these  alcohols,  if  present  at  all, 
are  found  in  whiskeys  and  similar  liquors  only  in  small  quan- 
tities —  hardly  more  than  traces  —  it  is  seen  that  their  action 
on  the  chemical  processes  of  gastric  digestion  cannot  be  very 
deleterious.  Indeed,  so  far  as  our  data  .show,  the  presence  of 
traces  of  these  alcohols  tends  to  increase  rather  than  to  decrease 
the  rate  of  digestive  action.  While  they  may  be  very  unde- 
sir.able  impurities  in  alcoholic  liquors,  and  may  perhaps  have 
many  physiological  properties  detrimental  to  liealth,  they  cer- 
tainly do  not  materially  interfere  with  the  chemical  processes  of 
gastric  digestion.  Physiologically,  it  is  of  interest  to  note  how 
all  of  these  alcohols,  as  well  as  ethyl  alcohol,  have  the  property 


180  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

of  increasing  the  rate  of  digestive  action  when  present  in  small 
amount.  Also  noticeable  is  the  relationship  between  the  posi- 
tion of  the  alcohol  in  the  series  and  the  extent  of  its  stimulating 
and  retarding  action.  Thus,  methyl  alcohol,  the  lowest  mem- 
ber of  tlie  series,  increases  the  rate  of  proteolysis  even  when 
present  to  the  extent  of  two  per  cent.,  while  amyl  alcohol  pro- 
duces stimulation  only  when  present  in  amounts  less  than  0.2 
per  cent. 

Brandy. 

According  to  Dr.  Edward  Smith  of  England,  "  brandy  is,  or 
should  be,  the  choicest  and  most  agreeable  member  of  the  class 
of  ardent  spirits.  It  should  be  prepared  by  distillation  from 
wine,"  but,  as  is  well  known,  a  large  amount  of  the  brandy 
consumed  at  the  present  time  is  simply  alcohol  distilled  as  in 
the  jjreparation  of  whiskey,  and  flavored  with  oil  of  cognac. 
From  this  it  may  be  inferred  that  brandy  will  have  much  the 
same  action  as  whiskey  on  gastric  digestion. 

The  brandy  used  in  our  first  experiments  was  of  good  quality, 
known  as  Home's  cold  distilled  brandy,  selling  at  #1.25  per 
quart.     Analysis  showed  the  following  composition  :  — 

Specific  gravity 0.940  (at  19°  C). 

Alcohol  by  volume 47-48  per  cent. 

Solid  residue  at  110°  C.     .     .     .  0.0430  gram  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.0054     " 

Reaction  acid. 

Experiment  38. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumin  (15  c.  c). 
15  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  1.3395  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.006  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  7  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 

Undigested  Proteid  Kelative  proteolytic 

Brandy.  albumin.  digested.  action. 

0  per  cent.  0.39G2  gram.  70.5  per  cent.  100.0 

1  "  0.4379  "  67.4  "  95.6 
3  "  0.5012  "  62.8  "  89.0 
6        "                   0.5218     «              61.1         «                        66.6 

Brandy  residue. 

1  per  cent.  0.3992     "  70.2        "  99.4 

6         "  0.3654     «  72.8        "  103.2 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  181 

Experiment  39. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2|  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Brandy. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3101  gram. 

83.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

0.3306     " 

83.5 

100.6 

3 

0.3140     " 

82.8 

99.7 

6 

0.3133     " 

82.9 

99.8 

Experiment  40. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except 
that  the  period  of  digestion  was  2^  hours  :  — 


Brandy. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Kelativc  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.2013  gram. 

90.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

5 

0.2251     " 

88.8 

98.7 

Experiment  41. 

Conditions  the  same  as  the  above,  except  that  the  period  of 
digestion  was  Ij^  hours  :  — 

Fluid                               Undigested                      Proteid  ReUtive  proteolytic 

added.                                     fibrin.                           digested.  action. 

0  per  cent.                           0.3247  gram.         83.8  per  cent.  100.0 

5        "    absol.  alcoh.         0.3554     "             82.3        "  98.2 

10        "    brandy                  0.3752     "             81.3        "  97.0 

10        "        "      distil.         0.3489     "             82.6        «  98.5 

10        «        "      residue*    0.3024     "             84.9        «  101.3 

Experiment  42. 

Conditions  the  same  as  the  above,  except  that  the  period  of 
digestion  was  1^^  hours  :  — 


Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytio 

action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3361  gram. 

83.2  per  cent. 

100.0 

5        "    absol.  alcoh. 

0.4040      " 

79.8 

95.9 

10        "    brandy 

0.4242     " 

78.8 

94.7 

10        «        "      distil. 

0.4286     " 

78.6        " 

94.4 

10         "         "       residue 
in  alcohol 

\ 

0.4334     « 

78.4        « 

94.2 

10         "         "       residue 
in  water 

\ 

0.3609     " 

82.0        " 

98.5 

*  Dissolved  in  water,  being  the  residue  from  this  percentage  of  brandy. 


Undigested 
fibrin. 
0.7941  gram. 
1.0007     " 

Proteid 
digested. 

C0.3  per  cent. 
50.0 

Relative  prote<d3rti 
action. 

100.0 
82.9 

0.9357     " 

53.3 

88.3 

0.9304     « 

53.5 

88.7 

0.9014     " 

55.0 

91.2 

182  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Experiment  43. 
In  this  experiment  four  distinct  samples  of  brandy  were  used. 

Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibriu  (2  grams). 

0.009  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  liydrocliloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  1]^  hours  at  38°— 10°  C. 

Brandy. 
0  per  cent. 
10 
10 
10 
10 

The  experiments  here  recorded  indicate  that  brandy  has  a 
slight  retarding  action  on  pepsin-proteolysis  when  present  in 
quantities  ranging  from  five  to  ten  per  cent.  When  the  gastric 
juice  is  relatively  weak,  then  the  retardation  may  be  quite  pro- 
nounced, as  in  Experiment  38.  Such  action  as  the  brandy 
possesses  is  due  almost  wholly  to  the  contained  alcohol.  In- 
deed, the  solid  matter  present  in  brandy  when  separated  and 
dissolved  in  water  may  even  cause  a  slight  increase  in  the  rate 
of  pi'oteolysis.  Evidentl}%  we  may  draw  the  same  conclusions 
regarding  brandy  that  have  been  drawn  in  connection  with 
whiskey.  Both  owe  their  action  mainly  to  the  contained  al- 
cohol ;  the  results  obtained  with  ten  per  cent,  of  brandy  being 
essentially  the  same  as  those  obtained  with  five  per  cent,  of  ab- 
solute alcohol  under  like  conditions. 

Rum. 

The  only  essential  difference  between  whiskey  and  rum,  as 
generally  understood,  is  in  tlie  character  of  the  aroma  or  flavor, 
and,  as  the  volatile  products  which  are  the  cause  of  the  flavor  are 
present  only  in  very  small  quantity,  it  might  be  assumed  that 
these  two  liquors  would  be  very  much  alike  in  their  general 
physiological  action.  The  sample  of  rum  (St.  Croix  rum,  at 
#1.25  per  quart)  with  which  our  experiments  were  mainly  made 
had  the  following  composition  :  — 

Specific  gravity 0.935  (at  18.5°  C). 

Alcohol  by  volume 50.8-51.0  per  cent. 

Solid  residue  at  110°  C 0.3068  gram  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.0070     "        "         " 

Reaction  acid. 


DIGESTION   AND   SECRETION.  183 

Experiment  44. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  ^  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

O.OIG  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2^  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Fluid 

Undigested 

Proteid 

Relative  proteolytic 

added. 

fibrin. 

digested. 

action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.2013  gram. 

90.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

6         "     rum 

0.2304     " 

88.5 

98.3 

5         "     whiskey 

0.2312     " 

88.5        " 

98.3 

5         "     absol.  alcoh. 

0.2601     " 

87.0        " 

96.6 

Experiment  45. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except 
that  the  period  of  digestion  was  1|  hours :  — 


Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolyti 
actioD. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3995  gram. 

80.1  per  cent. 

100.0 

5         "     absol.  alcoh. 

0.5392     " 

73.1 

91.2 

10         "     rum 

0.5029    « 

74.9 

93.5 

10        "       ''     distillate 

0.4561     " 

77.2 

96.3 

10         "       "     residue  in 
50  pr.  ct.  alcoh. 

1 0.4691     « 

76.6 

95.6 

10         "     rum  residue  in 
water 

1 0.4290     " 

78.6 

98.1 

Experiment  46. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except 
that  the  period  of  digestion  was  2|  hours :  — 


Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.1759  gram. 

91.3  per  cent. 

100.0 

5         "     rum  residue  ' 

0.1589     " 

92.1         " 

100.8 

5         "     whiskey  residue  ■ 

!  0.1847     " 

90.8        " 

99.4 

5         "     absolute  alcohol 

0.2145     " 

89.3 

97.8 

The  results  plainly  indicate  that  rum  is  essentially  similar  to 
whiskey  in  its  action  on  artificial  gastric  digestion,  and  that 
such  retardation  as  it  causes  is  due  mainly  to  the  contained  al- 
cohol. 

Gin. 
Our  experiments  with  this  liquor  were  conducted  solely  with 
a  sample  of  so-called  "  pure  Holland  gin,"  the  composition  of 
which  was  as  follows :  — 

'  Residue  dissolved  in  water.  -  Ibid. 


184  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Specific  gravity 0.937  (at  16°  C). 

Alcohol  by  volume 51.0  per  cent. 

Solid  residue  at  110°  C.     .     .     .  0.2968  gram  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.0090    " 

Reaction  very  slightly  acid. 

Experiment  47. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  i=  blood-flbrin  (2  grams). 

0.015  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  1|  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Oin. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

0.4210  gram. 
0.4722     " 

Proteid 
digested. 

79.0  per  cent. 
76.4 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 
96.7 

3 

0.4681     " 

76.6 

96.9 

5 

0.4938     " 

75.4 

95.4 

10        " 

0.5725     " 

71.4 

90.3 

Absolute  alcohol. 
5  per  cent. 

0.5506     " 

72.5        « 

91.7 

Experiment  48. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.008  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  1|  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Fluid 

Undigested 

Proteid 

Relative  proteolytic 

added. 

fibrin. 

digested. 

action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.9045  gram 

54.8  per  cent 

100.0 

10      "        gin 

1.0230     " 

48.9       " 

89.2 

10      "        distillate 

0.9961     " 

50.2       " 

91.4 

10       "         residue  * 

0.9508     " 

52.5       " 

75.8 

5       "          absol.  alcoh. 

1.0104     " 

49.5       " 

90.3 

The  results  plainly  indicate  an  action  on  pepsin-proteolysis 
exactly  analogous  to  that  of  the  related  fluids,  —  whiskey,  rum, 
and  brandy.  As  in  the  case  of  the  latter,  such  action  as  the 
gin  possesses  is  to  be  ascribed  solely  to  the  contained  alcohol ; 
the  action  of  ten  per  cent,  of  gin,  -with  its  fifty  per  cent,  of 
alcohol,  being  practically  identical  with  that  of  five  per  cent,  of 
absolute  alcohol  or  ten  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit. 

Action  of  Wines. 

In  considering  the  action  of  wines  on  gastric  digestion  it  is 

to  be  remembered  that  we  have  to  deal  with  a  class  of  beverages 

which  naturally  contain  far  less  alcohol  than  the  liquors  already 

'  Dissolved  in  water. 


DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION.  185 

discussed.  The  prominence  which  they  have  as  accessories  to 
food,  however,  and  the  relatively  larger  quantities  in  which 
they  are  consumed  lend  special  importance  from  a  physiological 
standpoint  to  a  study  of  their  action.  Further,  the  greater 
complexity  of  wines  in  chemical  composition  naturally  intro- 
duces a  variety  of  factors,  aside  from  the  alcohol,  which  neces- 
sarily merit  some  consideration.  It  is  likewise  to  be  remembered 
that  while  wines  are  supposed  to  consist  simply  of  pure  grape- 
juice  fermented  and  clarified,  there  is  a  large  manufacture  of 
artificial  wines,  both  in  Europe  and  in  this  country,  in  which 
"  raisins,  cider,  sugar,  alcohol,  glycerin,  tartaric  acid,  cream  of 
tartar,  coloring  matter,  wine-flavors,  and  water  "  are  the  princi- 
pal substances  used.i 

With  special  reference  to  the  content  of  alcohol  we  may 
divide  wines  into  the  two  classes  of  heavy  and  light,  —  i.  e., 
those  which  contain  a  comparatively  large  j)ercentage  of  alco- 
hol, as  sherry  and  port,  and  those  which  contain  a  smaller 
amount  of  alcohol,  such  as  clarets  and  hocks.  With  reference 
to  the  many  grades  of  California  wines  which  are  being  so  widely 
used  at  present  in  this  country,  we  may  refer  to  a  recent  report 
on  their  chemical  composition  and  characteristics  by  Dr.  King.^ 

Sherry. 
Our  experiments  were  commenced  with  a  brand  of  sherry  sold 
as  "  Amontillado  Sherry,"  at  75  cents  per  quart.     Its  composi- 
tion was  found  to  be  as  follows  :  — 

Specific  gravity 0.997  (at  17.5°  C). 

Alcohol  by  volume 20.75-21.75  per  cent. 

Solid  residue  at  110°  C 4.7338  grams  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.4154  gram     "        " 

Reaction  acid. 

Experiment  49. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  cooked  beef  proteids  '  (10  grams). 
10  grams  beef  contain  4.3262  grams  dry  proteid. 

'  See  report  by  Dr.  Englehardt  in  the  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  State 
Board  of  Health  of  New  York,  p.  619. 

2  "  Some  Characteristics  of  California  Wines,"  by  W.  H.  King,  of  the 
Chemical  Laboratory  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Journal  of 
Amer.  Chem.  Soc.,  vol.  xvi.  p.  597. 

^  Washed  free  from  all  soluble  matters  and  freed  from  fat. 


186 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  7J  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Sherry. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 
3  " 
6      " 


1.9810  grams. 
2.0839      " 
2.0995      " 
2.1102      « 


Proteid 
digested. 

54.3  per  cent 
51.9       " 
51.5      " 
51.3      " 


Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 
95.5 
94.8 
94.4 


Undigested 
fibrin. 
0.3646  gram. 
0.3555      " 

Proteid          Relative  proteolyt 
digested.                    action. 

81.8  per  cent.         100.0 

82.3      «                100.6 

0.4075      " 

79.7      "                  97.4 

0.4213      « 

79.0      "                  96.5 

Experiment  50. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  liydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2|  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 


Sherry. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 
3  " 
6      " 


Experiment  51. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumin  (15  c.  c). 
15  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  1.0522  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.0024  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  5|  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 

Sherry. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 
3  " 
5      " 

7       " 
Sherry  residue.* 
1  per  cent. 
7      " 


Undigested 
albumin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolyt 
action. 

0.4547  gram. 

56.8  per  cent 

100.0 

0.5072      " 

51.8       " 

91.1 

0.5101      " 

51.6       " 

90.8 

0.5806      " 

44,9      " 

79.0 

0.5916      " 

43.8      " 

77.1 

0.4912      " 

53.4      " 

94. 

0.5482      " 

47.9       " 

84.3 

Experiment  52. 
Conditions  ; 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumin  (15  c.  c). 
15  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  1.1948  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.0024  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  5^^  hours  at  38°-40"='  C. 

1  The  residue  left  on  evaporation  of  the  sherry.  This  was  then  dissolved 
in  water  and  introduced  into  the  digestive  mixtures,  the  percentages  referred 
to  being  the  amount  of  residue  contained  in  one  per  cent,  and  seven  per 
cent,  of  the  original  sherry,  respectively. 


DIGESTION   AND 

SECRETION. 

18' 

Sherry. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 

Undigested 
albumin. 
0.6503  gram. 
0.6578     " 

Proteid 
digested. 
45.6  per  cent 
45.0      " 

Kelative  proteolyti 
action. 

100.0 
98.6 

3      « 

0.6930     " 

42.0      " 

92.1 

6       " 

0.7533     " 

37.0      " 

81.1 

Sherry  residue. 
1  per  cent. 

0.6728     « 

43.7      " 

95.8 

6       " 

0.6560     " 

45.1       " 

98.9 

Exjjeriment  53. 
The  conditions  were  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment, 
excepting  that  the  period  of  digestion  was  G-^.^  hours  :  — 

Sherry. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 
3  " 
6      " 

Sherry  residue. 
1  per  cent. 
3       " 
6       " 


Undigested 
albuujin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0.6617  gram. 

44.7  per  cent 

100.0 

0.6864     " 

42.6      " 

95.3 

0.7304    « 

38.9      " 

87.0 

0.7368     « 

38.4      " 

85.9 

0.6839     " 

42.8      " 

95.7 

0.6810     " 

43.1       " 

96.4 

0.6314     " 

47.2      " 

105.5 

Experiment  54. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  ^  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2i  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 


Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.2013  gram. 

90.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

5       "       absol.  alcoh. 

0.2601     " 

87.0       " 

96.6 

5       "       sherry 

0.3401     " 

84.8       " 

94.2 

From  these  results  it  is  plain  that  while  sherry  wine  has  a 
marked  retarding  effect  on  gastric  digestion  —  an  effect  which 
increases  with  the  weakness  of  the  gastric  juice  —  the  inhibitory 
action  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  amount  of  contained  alco- 
hol. Thus,  ten  per  cent,  of  the  sherry  used  in  these  experi- 
ments would  be  equivalent  simply  to  two  per  cent,  of  absolute 
alcohol,  an  amount  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  wholly  inadequate 
to  bring  about  the  retardation  in  proteolysis  observed  with 
sherry.  Indeed,  two  per  cent,  of  alcohol  is  more  liable  to  be 
without  any  marked  influence  on  pepsin-proteolysis.  The  pre- 
sence of  five  per  cent,  of  sherry,  however,  as  our  last  experi- 
ment shows,  has  a  far  greater  retarding  effect  than  even  five 


188  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol.  It  is  thus  evident  that  we  must 
look  elsewhere  for  an  explanation  of  the  action  of  sherry  wine 
on  gastric  digestion.  Buchner,!  in  his  investigations  of  the  in- 
fluence of  alcoholic  liquors  on  peptic  digestion,  found  that  the 
light  white  and  red  French  wines  retarded  digestion  far  more 
than  corresponding  quantities  of  alcohol.  Similar  results  were 
obtained  with  the  stronger  Hungarian  wines  (Ruster  and  To- 
kayer).  Especially  unfavorable  was  the  action  of  Marsala 
wine.  Buchner  attributed  these  results  to  the  presence  of  the 
"  bouquet  stoffe."  It  is  evident,  however,  from  our  results  that 
with  sherry  regard  must  be  had  to  the  residue  or  solid  matter 
contained  in  the  wine.  This,  as  our  analysis  shows,  is  present 
in  the  wine  to  the  extent  of  approximately  4.75  per  cent.,  the 
greater  proportion  of  which  is  organic  matter.  Further,  it  is 
evident  that  this  solid  matter,  when  free  from  the  alcohol  of 
the  wine,  has  by  itself  a  distinct  influence  on  peptic  digestion. 
So  far  as  our  experiments  show,  small  amounts  of  this  solid 
matter  retard  peptic  digestion  more  than  larger  quantities. 
Indeed,  in  one  case  the  solid  matter  equivalent  to  six  per  cent, 
of  sherry  increased  the  digestive  action  of  the  artificial  gastric 
juice  quite  appreciably.  Evidently  there  are  various  factors  of 
unknown  nature  in  this  residue  which  exei't  an  influence,  not 
always  constant,  upon  the  rate  of  digestive  proteolysis  by  pep- 
sin-hydrochloric acid. 

The  following  experiments  throw  some  additional  light  upon 
this  subject :  — 

Experiment  55. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2^  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 


Fluid  UDdifrested  Proteid 

added.  fibrin.  digested. 

0  per  cent.  0.2027  gram.  89.9  per  cent.  100.0 

5       "      sherry  0.2340     "  88.3        "  98.2 

5      "          "     residue  0.2627     "  86.9        "  96.6 

5      "      absol.  alcoh.  0.2619     "  87.0        "  96.7 

Experiment  56. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except 
that  the  mixtures  were  warmed  at  38°-40°  C.  for  1  jV  hours. 

1  Deutsches  ArcJiivf.  klin.  Med.,  xxix.  537. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  189 


Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibriii. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 

0  per 

cent. 

0.3247  gram. 

83.8  per  cent. 

100.0 

5      " 

'      absol.  alcoh. 

0.3554     " 

82.3 

98.2 

10      " 

'       sherry 

0.4785     " 

76.1 

90.8 

10      " 

■           "    distillate  ' 

1  0.2855     " 

85.8 

102.3 

10      " 

■           "    residue 

0.4453     " 

77.8 

92.8 

It  is  thus  evident  that  so  far  as  the  alcohol  and  other  volatile 
substances  present  in  sherry  are  concerned,  the  amount  intro- 
duced into  an  artificial  gastric  juice  with  ten  per  cent,  of  sherry 
(i.  6.,  10  c.  c.)  tends  to  increase  quite  distinctly  the  rate  of  di- 
gestion. Hence,  the  substance  or  substances  which  give  the  bou- 
quet to  this  wine  are  probably  not  the  cause  of  the  retardation 
in  digestive  action,  but  this  is  to  be  traced  directly  and  solely 
to  the  substance  or  substances  which  make  up  the  solid  matter 
of  the  wine.  Obviously,  however,  if  sherry  be  mixed  with 
gastric  juice  in  such  quantity  as  to  introduce  five,  ten,  or  fifteen 
per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  the  latter  will  produce  its  ordinary 
retardation  of  proteolytic  action,  although  doubtless  lessened 
somewhat  by  the  bouquet,  or  other  volatile  material  which  ap- 
parently stimulates  rather  than  retards  jDeptic  digestion. 

Our  results  are  thus  more  or  less  in  accord  with  the  results 
obtained  by  Sir  William  Roberts,^  who  in  writing  of  the  effects 
of  sherry  and  port  on  gastric  digestion  says,  "  It  is  evident  that 
the  retarding  effects  of  sherry  and  port  considerably  exceed 
what  is  due  to  the  alcohol  contained  in  them.  The  table  shows 
that  when  the  digesting  mixture  contained  forty  per  cent,  of 
either  wine  the  action  of  the  ferment  was  brought  almost  to  a 
standstill.  These  wines  are  estimated  to  contain  about  twenty 
per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  (or  forty  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit)  ; 
therefore,  forty  per  cent,  of  these  wines  is  only  equivalent  in 
alcoholic  strength  to  sixteen  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit  —  and 
this  proportion  of  alcohol  retards  digestion  only  slightly.  Even 
in  the  proportion  of  twenty  per  cent.,  sherry  trebled  the  time 
in  which  digestion  was  completed.  There  must,  therefore,  be 
in  these  wines  some  retarding  agent  besides  alcohol." 

We  may  quote  Dr.  Roberts  still  further  in  this  connection, 

1  Being  the  distillate  from  this  amount  of  sherry  and  containing  obviously 
all  of  the  alcohol  together  with  the  other  volatile  substances  present  therein. 

^  Digestion  and  Diet:  "Effect  of  Food  Accessories  on  Peptic  Digestion," 
London,  1891,  p.  134. 


190  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

since  his  statements  express  so  clearly  our  own  conclusions 
based  upon  the  results  we  have  obtained  :  "  As  used  dietetically, 
sherry  must  figure  as  having  frequently  an  important  retarding 
effect  on  peptic  digestion.  This  wine  is  used  with  dinner  by 
some  persons  very  freely.  Half  a  pint  of  sherry  is  no  unusual 
allowance,  and  this  in  a  total  gastric  charge  of  two  pounds 
amounts  to  about  twenty-five  per  cent.,  which  the  table  shows 
to  be  a  highly  inhibitory  proportion.  In  the  more  common 
])ractice  of  taking  two  or  three  wineglasses  of  sherry  with 
dinner,  we  see  probably  a  double  action  —  a  stimulating  action 
on  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice  and  on  the  muscular  contrac- 
tions of  the  stomach,  and  a  slight  retarding  effect  on  the  speed 
of  the  chemical  process,  especially  in  its  early  stages.  In 
smaller  proportions  —  a  wineglass  or  so  —  sherry  would  act  as 
a  pure  stimulant  to  digestion."  On  the  purely  chemical  pro- 
cess of  gastric  digestion,  however,  we  should  be  inclined,  from 
the  results  of  our  own  experiments,  to  insist  that  even  small 
amounts  of  sherry  may  exert  a  slight  inhibitory  action.  As  to 
the  cause  of  the  retarding  action  of  shei-ry,  Roberts  considers  it 
due  largely  to  the  volatile  constituents  of  the  wine  other  than 
the  alcohol,  while  our  experiments  would  lead  us  to  believe  that 
it  is  attributable  mainly  to  the  character  of  the  solid  matter  con- 
tained therein. 

Claret. 
Our  experiments  with  claret  were  conducted  solely  with  a 
California  wine  of  ordinary  grade,  known  as  "  Chateau  Roland, 
Bordeaux,"  sold  at  thirty  cents  a  quart.     Its  composition  was 
as  follows  :  — 

Specific  gravity 1.000  (.it  20°  C.)- 

Alcohol  by  volume 9.75-10.0  per  cent. 

Solid  residue  at  110°  C.      .     .     .  3.3056  grams  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.6336  gram     "         " 

Reaction  strongly  acid. 

That  this  was  a  typical  sample  of  a  California  wine  of  the 
claret  type,  at  least  so  far  as  the  content  of  alcohol  is  concerned, 
is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  Kingi  states  in  his  paper  on  the 
"  Characteristics  of  California  Wines  "  that  California  clarets 
contain  9.16-11.23  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 
1  Loc.  cit. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


191 


Experiment  57. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  bydrochlorie  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2^^  bours  at  38°^0°  C. 

Claret. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 
3  " 
6      " 


Undigested 
flbrin. 

0.3401  gram. 
0.3252     " 

Proteid 
digested. 

83.0  per  cent. 
83.8      " 

Relative  proteolyt 
action. 

100.0 

100.9 

0.3965     " 

80.2      " 

96.6 

0.3732     « 

81.4      " 

98.0 

Experiment  58. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumin  (15  c.  c). 
15  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  1.347  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.04  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  7  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Claret. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 

Unditiested 
albumin. 

0.5800  gram. 
0.5313     " 

Proteid 

digested. 
67.0  per  cent. 
60.6      « 

Relative  proteolyt 
action. 

100.0 
106.3 

3       « 

0.5899     " 

66.3      " 

98.7 

6       " 

Claret  residue.^ 
1  per  cent. 
3       " 

0.5892     " 

0.5865     " 
0.5253     " 

56.3      " 

56.5       " 
61.0      " 

98.7 

99.1 
107.2 

6      " 

0.5903    " 

56.2      « 

98.5 

Experiment  59. 
Conditions  ; 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumin  (15  e.  c). 

15  c.  c.  albumin  soluticn  contain  1.1948  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.0024  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  o^\  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Claret. 

Undigested 

Proteid 

Relative  proteolytic 

albumin. 

digested. 

action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.6808  gram. 

43.2  per  cent. 

100.0 

1       " 

0.6801     " 

43.2      " 

100.0 

3       « 

0.6950     " 

41.9      " 

96.9 

5      " 

0.7258     " 

39.3      " 

90.9 

7      " 

0.7238    " 

39.5      « 

91.2 

Claret  residue. 

1  per  cent. 

0.6546     « 

45.3      " 

104.8 

3      " 

0.6785    " 

43.3      " 

100.5 

7      " 

0.6847     " 

42.7      " 

98.8 

'  The  residue  left  on  evaporation  of  the  claret.  The  several  percentages 
refer  to  the  original  claret,  i.  e.,  the  one  per  cent,  claret  residue  being  the 
residue  from  one  per  cent,  of  claret. 


.92  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Experiment  60. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumin  (15  c.  c). 
15  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  1.347  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.0024  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  6^  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 

Claret. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 
3  « 
6      " 

Claret  residue. 
1  per  cent. 
6      " 

Experiment  61. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2\  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Undigested 
albumin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0.7G59  gram. 

43.2 

per  cent. 

100.0 

0.7839     " 

41.9 

" 

96.9 

0.7980    " 

40.8 

" 

94.4 

0.8161     " 

39.5 

" 

91.2 

0.7589    " 

43. 

« 

101.1 

0.7044    " 

43.2 

" 

100.0 

Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.2013  gram. 

90.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

5      "      absol.  alcoh. 

0.2601     " 

87.0       " 

96.6 

5      "      claret 

0.2560     " 

87.2      " 

96.8 

Experiment  62. 
Conditions  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment. 


Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.1759  gram. 

91.3  per  cent. 

100.0 

5      "       absol.  alcoh. 

0.2145    " 

89.3       " 

97.8 

5       "       claret  residue 

0.2214     " 

89.0      " 

97.4 

From  a  careful  scrutiny  of  these  results  several  conclusions 
are  obvious :  First,  the  presence  of  small  amounts  of  claret,  say 
one  per  cent.,  in  a  digestive  mixture  tends  to  increase  rather 
than  to  decrease  digestive  action.  Large  amounts  of  claret 
have  a  distinct  inhibitory  action  on  pepsin-proteolysis,  which, 
however,  is  not  anywhere  near  so  pronounced  as  with  sherry. 
To  be  sure,  the  content  of  alcohol  in  the  claret  is  only  half  that 
of  tlie  sherry,  but  even  six  per  cent,  of  claret  is  equal  to  only 
0.6  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol.  Yet  the  retardation  produced 
by  the  presence  of  five  per  cent,  of  claret  is  about  equivalent  to 
that  caused  by  five  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol.    Consequently, 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  193 

the  retardation  in  gastric  digestion  witnessed  in  the  presence 
of  the  above  percentages  of  claret  is  hardly  to  be  attributed  to 
the  contained  alcohol. 

With  the  solid  matter  present  in  claret  our  results  are  not 
strictly  concordant ;  thus,  some  of  our  experiments  tend  to  show 
that  the  solid  matter  present  in  this  wine  has  a  direct  stimu- 
lating effect,  while  in  other  experiments  the  retardation  pro- 
duced by  the  solid  matter  of  the  wine  is  exactly  equal  to  that 
of  the  wine  itself.  We  have  not  been  able  to  come  to  any 
satisfactory  conclusion  on  this  point,  the  only  plausible  sugges- 
tion that  we  have  to  offer  being  that  possibly  the  difficulty  lies 
in  the  variable  character  of  the  coloring  and  other  matters 
present  in  the  wine.  In  any  event,  the  alcohol  present  in  this 
wine  is  answerable  for  its  action  on  gastric  digestion  only  to  a 
very  limited  extent.  Again,  we  find  our  results  in  close  accord 
with  those  obtained  by  Roberts.  Thus,  this  investigator  states 
that  the  effect  of  both  claret  and  hock  is  out  of  all  proportion  to 
the  alcohol  contained  in  them :  "  These  wines  are  estimated  to 
contain  from  ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol,  so 
that,  however  freely  they  might  be  used  dietetically,  the  amount 
of  alcohol  so  introduced,  even  if  they  were  used  up  to  eighty 
per  cent,  of  the  total  contents  of  the  stomach,  would  scarcely 
produce  an  appreciable  effect  on  peptic  action.  We  must, 
therefore,  again  here  recognize  the  presence  of  some  other  re- 
tarding agent  besides  alcohol. 

"  If  we  consider  the  copious  proportions  in  which  hock  and 
claret  are  used  dietetically,  it  becomes  evident  that  their  retard- 
ing effect  on  peptic  digestion  is  often  brought  into  play.  A 
pint  of  claret  or  hock  is  a  comrnon  allowance  with  dinner  for 
robust  eaters  —  and  such  a  proportion  as  the  table  shows  would 
not  be  without  considerable  effect.  .  .  .  On  the  other  hand,  the 
more  sparing  use  of  these  wines,  a  glass  or  two,  with  dinner  or 
luncheon  would  eiadently  not  produce  any  appreciable  retarda- 
tion of  peptic  action,  but  would,  like  corresponding  doses  of 
sherry,  act  as  pure  stimulants.  In  both  these  instances,  as  in 
some  others,  it  seems  to  be  indicated  that  by  adjusting  the 
quantities  we  may  elicit  diverse  effects.  With  large  quantities 
we  may  obtain  retardation,  with  small  quantities  we  may  ob- 
tain acceleration,  of  gastric  digestion."  ^  With  these  statements 
our  results  are  mainly  in  accord. 

1  Roberts,  Digestion  and  Diet,  p.  136. 


194  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

White  Wine  of  the  Rhenish  Type. 
In  our  study  of  this  kind  of  wine  we  employed  a  California 
wine  sold  under  the  name  of  "  Hochheimei-  "  at  thirty-five  cents 
per  quart.     Our  analysis  of  the  brand  employed  gave  the  fol- 
lowing results :  — 

Specific  gravity 0.997  (at  17°  C). 

Alcohol  by  volume 11.0  per  cent. 

Solid  residue  at  110°  C.      .     .     .  1.8436  grams  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.2236  gram      "         " 

Reaction  acid. 

The  wines  of  this  type,  as  King  states,  are  characterized  by 
a  content  of  alcohol  varying  from  8.45  to  11.67  per  cent.,  and 
with  an  acidity  equal  to  0.50  to  0.65  per  cent,  of  tartaric  acid. 

Experiment  63. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  1^  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 

White  TJiidigested  Proteid  Relative  proteolytic 

wine.  fibrin.  digested.  action. 

0  per  cent.  0.2829  gram.  85.9  per  cent.  100.0 

1  "  0.2716  «  86.5  "  100.6 
3  "  0.3122  "  84.4  "  98.2 
6      "                     0.3464     "               82.7      "  96.2 

Experiment  64. 
Conditions  same  as  above,  but   the  period  of   digestion  2\ 
hours. 


0  per  cent.  0.2013  gram.         90.0  per  cent.  100.0 

5      "      wine  0.2439     "  87.9      "  97.6 

5      "      absol.  alcoh.        0.2601     "  87.0      "  96.6 

Experiment  65. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment. 


Fluid 
added. 

0  per  cent. 

5      "      absol.  alcoh. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

0.1759  gram. 
0.2145     " 

Proteid 
digested. 

91.3  per  cent. 
89.3      " 

Relative  proteoljrtic 
action. 

100.0 
97.8 

5      "      wine  residue 

0.2158     « 

89.3      " 

97.8 

DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION.  195 

Experiment  66. 
Conditions  same  as  above,  but  the  period  of   digestion  1| 


hours. 


0  per 
5      " 

Fluid 
added, 
cent. 

absol.  alcoh. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 
0.2032  gram. 
0.2317     " 

Proteid 

digested. 
89.9  per  cent. 
88.5      " 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 
98.4 

10      " 

wine 

0.2531     " 

87.4      " 

97.2 

10      " 

"   distillate! 

0.2063     " 

89.7      « 

99.7 

10      " 

"   residue 

0.2810     " 

86.0      " 

95.6 

From  these  results  it  is  obvious  that  essentially  the  same 
conclusions  can  be  drawn  with  regard  to  this  white  wine  as 
have  been  applied  to  claret.  A  small  quantity,  such  as  one  per 
cent.,  has  no  retarding  action  on  pepsin-proteolysis,  but  tends 
rather  to  increase  the  rate  of  digestion.  Larger  amounts  of  the 
wine,  say  ten  per  cent.,  have  a  small  retarding  effect,  which  is 
due  almost  wholl}^  to  the  solid  matter  present  in  the  wine  rather 
than  to  the  alcohol  or  other  volatile  matter.  Thus,  the  distil- 
late (Experiment  66)  corresponding  to  ten  per  cent,  of  the  ori- 
ginal wine  had  almost  no  retarding  action  on  gastric  digestion, 
while  the  residue  from  the  same  amount  of  wine  caused  a  re- 
tardation even  greater  than  that  produced  by  the  wine  itself. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  white  wine  is  far 
less  active  in  retarding  pepsin-proteolysis  than  the  red  wine. 
This  difference  in  intensity  of  action  depends  probably  upon 
the  character  of  the  solid  matter  present  in  the  wine,  or  possibly 
upon  the  amount  of  such  matter  ;  the  claret  containing  3.3056 
grams  of  solid  matter  per  100  c.  c,  while  the  white  wine  con- 
tained only  1.8436  grams  per  100  c.  c.  Doubtless,  however, 
differences  in  the  methods  of  treating  the  grape  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  wine,  the  processes  of  plastering  and  mixing,  as 
well  as  the  variations  the  ai-tistic  mixer  of  wines  may  introduce, 
all  have  an  influence  in  determining  the  character  of  this  solid 
residue,  which  seems  far  more  potent  than  the  alcohol  in  acting 
upon  the  digestive  process. 

Hence,  we  may  conclude  that  wines  as  a  class,  taken  in  small 
amount,  have  little  or  no  deleterious  influence  upon  the  chemi- 
cal processes  of  gastric  digestion.  In  smaU  amounts  they  may 
even  increase  somewhat  the  rate  of  digestive  action  owing  to 

*  Being  the  volatile  matter,  alcohol,  etc.,  obtainable  from  an  amount  of 
wine  equivalent  to  ten  per  cent,  of  the  original  hochheimer. 


196  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

the  alcohol,  and  perhaps  other  substances,  contained  in  them. 
In  larger  quantities  they  have  more  or  less  of  a  retarding  effect 
upon  gastric  digestion ;  an  effect  which  is  dependent  rather 
upon  the  character  and  the  amount  of  solid  matter  present 
in  the  fluid  than  upon  the  contained  alcohol,  bouquet-flavoring, 
or  other  volatile  material.  Indeed,  wines  differ  most  markedly 
from  liquors  of  the  brandy  and  whiskey  type,  in  that  their 
action  upon  gastric  digestion  is  not  at  all  proportional  to  their 
content  of  alcohol.  As  we  have  seen,  whiskeys,  brandies,  etc., 
owe  their  action  upon  pepsin-proteolysis  almost  wholly  to  the 
contained  alcohol,  while  in  wines,  say  with  ten  per  cent,  of  alco- 
hol, the  alcohol  is  of  minor  importance  so  far  as  the  influence 
of  the  fluid  upon  the  solvent  or  digestive  power  of  the  gastric 
juice  is  concerned. 

Direct  Comparison  of  the  Action  of  Some  of  the  Foregoing 
Liquors. 

The  comparative  action  of  the  alcoholic  fluids  thus  far  studied 
has  perhaps  been  made  sufficiently  clear,  but  inasmuch  as  the 
conditions  under  which  proteolysis  occurs  have  such  an  impor- 
tant bearing  upon  the  rate  of  digestion,  we  have  deemed  it  wise 
to  make  an  experiment  with  representatives  of  the  different 
liquors  in  which  all  of  the  attendant  conditions  should  be  iden- 
tical.    The  results  are  shown  in  the  following  experiment :  — 

Experiment  67. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2\  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Fluid  used, 

Alcoholic 

Undigested 

Proteid 

Relative  proteo- 

five per  cent. 

strength.^ 

fibrin. 

digested. 

lytic  action. 

0 

0 

0.2013  gram. 

90.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

Absol.  alcoh. 

99.5] 

per  cent. 

0.2601     " 

87.0      " 

96.6 

Rura 

51.0 

" 

0.2304    " 

88.6      « 

98.3 

Whiskey- 

50.5 

" 

0.2312     « 

88.5      « 

98.3 

Brandy 

47.5 

" 

0.2251     " 

88.8      « 

98.7 

Sherry 

21.0 

" 

0.3041     « 

84.8      " 

94.2 

Hoehheimer 

11.0 

« 

0.2439     " 

87.9      " 

97.6 

Claret 

10.0 

" 

0.2560     " 

87.2      " 

96.8 

These  results,  obtained  under  exactly  similar  conditions,  are 
suggestive  in  that  they  show  so  clearly  the  relative  retarding 
•  Being  the  content  of  alcohol  in  the  fluid  added. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  197 

action  of  these  several  alcoholic  fluids.  Sherry,  with  its  high 
content  of  solid  matter  (about  4.75  per  cent.),  shows  the  greatest 
retarding  action,  while  claret  and  absolute  alcohol  come  next, 
followed  by  the  hochheimer.  Rum,  whiskey,  and  brandy,  with 
the  highest  content  of  alcohol,  produce  the  least  effect,  in  har- 
mony with  the  preceding  experiments,  so  that  we  again  have 
evidence  of  the  greater  retarding  effect  of  the  solid  matters 
contained  in  wines.  Alcohol  plainly  reduces  the  rate  of  pepsin- 
proteolysis,  but  five  per  cent,  of  pure  absolute  alcohol  has  no 
greater  retarding  action  than  the  same  percentage  of  claret  with 
only  one  tenth  as  much  absolute  alcohol.  Again,  rum,  whiskey, 
and  brandy  cause  approximately  only  half  the  retardation  that 
the  same  percentage  of  claret  will  produce,  although  the  latter 
contains  only  one  fifth  as  much  absolute  alcohol. 

Action  of  Malt  Liquors. 

Under  this  term  are  included  a  large  variety  of  beverages, 
such  as  beers,  ales,  porter,  stout,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  supposed 
to  contain  only  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  alcohol,  with 
a  relatively  large  amount  of  extractive  matter.  "  The  composi- 
tion of  malt  liquors  varies  greatly  according  to  the  materials 
used,  the  method  of  brewing,  the  season,  and  the  use  for  which 
it  is  intended.  .  .  .  The  chemical  composition  is  very  complex, 
the  principal  constituents  being  alcohol,  various  sugars,  and 
carbohydrates,  nitrogenous  matter,  carbonic,  acetic,  succinic, 
lactic,  malic,  and  tannic  acids,  bitter  and  resinous  extractive 
materials  from  the  hops,  glycerin,  and  various  mineral  con- 
stituents, consisting  mainly  of  phosphates  of  the  alkalies  and 
alkali  earths."  ^ 

The  following  table  shows  the  maximum  and  minimum  con- 
tent of  alcohol,  extract,  and  ash  in  476  samples  obtained  in 
American  markets  :  ^  — 

1  Bulletin  13,  part  3,  p.  275,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division 
of  Chemistry. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  279. 


198 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Maximum. 

Mioimiun. 

BOnd. 

Alcohol 

by 
weight. 

Extract. 

Aeh. 

Alcohol 

by 

weight. 

Extract. 

Ash. 

Per  cent. 

Per  ceut. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Lager 

7.061 

9.647 

0.412 

0.677 

3.655 

0.172 

Ale     .     . 

8.994 

9.501 

0.552 

2.410 

2.703 

0.197 

Porter     . 

6.695 

11.783 

0.557 

1.671 

2.843 

0.170 

Weiss     . 

3.179 

4.143 

0.486 

0.755 

1.277 

0.069 

A  recent  examination  ^  of  Munich  beer  made  in  the  analyt- 
ical laboratory  of  the  London  "  Lancet,"  with  which  the  com- 
position of  English  beer  has  been  contrasted,  gave  the  following 
results :  — 


Alcohol  by  weight 
Alcohol  by  volume 

Munich  beer. 

Lowenbrau. 
3.55  per  cent. 
4.45      « 

6.78 
8.45 

mid 
)er 

EnglJBh  beers. 

Bitter, 
cent.     5.44  per  cent 
6.78       " 

Equal  to  proof  spirit 
Total  malt  extractives 

7.80      " 
7.09       " 

14.81 
6.74 

11.89       " 
5.42       " 

Mineral  matters 

0.36      " 

0.43 

0.24       " 

Albuminous  matters 

0.57      " 

0.26 

0.16       « 

Maltose  and  dextrin 

6.15      " 

5.77 

4.22       « 

Toledo  Lager  Beer. 
A  partial  analysis  of  this  beer  gave  us  the  following  re- 
sults :  — 

Specific  gravity 1.019  (at  17.5°  C). 

Alcohol  by  volume 2.75  per  cent. 

Extract 5.9856  grams  per  100.  c.  c. 

Ash 0.1820  gram     « 

Experiment  68. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  fluid  egg-albumin  (15  c.  c). 

16  c.  c.  of  the  albumin  solution  contain  1.3395  grams  dry  albumin. 

0.006  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid, 

Period  of  digestion  7  hours  at  38°-t0°  C. 

1  London  Lancet,  February  16,  1895. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  199 


Beer 

Undigested 
albumin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0 

per 

cent. 

0.4121 

gram. 

69.3  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

" 

0.4110 

" 

69.4       " 

100.1 

3 

" 

0.4347 

" 

67.6       " 

97.5 

5 

" 

0.4314 

" 

67.8       « 

97.8 

7 

" 

0.5183 

" 

61.4       « 

88.6 

Beer  residue. 

1 

per 

cent. 

0.4042 

" 

69.9       " 

100.9 

7 

" 

0.4646 

« 

66.1       « 

95.3 

Milwaukee  Bock  Beer. 
This  sample  of  beer,  "  Milwaukee  Lager  Beer,  Pabst's  Bock," 
had  the  following  composition  :  — 

Specific  gravity 1.017  (at  17.5°  C). 

Alcohol  by  volume 2.5  per  cent. 

Extract 2.6479  grams  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.1462  gram     "         " 

Experiment  69. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  1^  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 

Beer. 
0  per  cent. 
1 

3       " 

6       " 

Beer  residue. 

6  per  cent.  0.3079     "  84.6       "  98.4 

New  Ha^en  Lager  Beer. 
This  beer  gave  on  analysis  the  following  results :  — 

Specific  gravity 1.026  (at  18°  C). 

Alcohol  by  volume 1.5  per  cent. 

Extract 7.1236  grams  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.2192  gram     "        " 

Experiment  70. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  cooked  and  washed  beef  proteid  (10  grams  moist). 
10  grams  beef  proteid  contain  4.3262  grams  dry  proteid. 
0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  1\  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Undigested 
fibrin. 

0.2829  gram. 
0.2738     " 

Proteid 
digested. 
85.9  per  cent. 
86.4       " 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 
100.5 

0.3085     " 

84.6       " 

98.4 

0.3183     " 

84.1       " 

97.9 

THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Beer. 
0  per  cent. 

Undigested 
proteid. 

1.9810  grams. 

Proteid 
digested. 

6-1.3  per  cent. 

Relative  proteolyti 
actioD. 

100.0 

1 

1.9513     " 

54.9       " 

101.1 

3       " 

2.0189     " 

53.4       " 

98.3 

Experiment  71. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =r  blood-i5brin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  24  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Beer. 

0  per  cent. 
3       " 
6       " 


Experiment  72. 
Conditions  tbe  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except 
that  the  jJeriod  of  digestion  was  2^1^  hours. 


Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  prote 
action. 

0.3646  gram. 

81.8  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.3591     " 

82.1 

100.3 

0.3961     " 

80.2 

98.0 

Fluid 
added. 

0  per  cent. 

2        "     absol.  alcoh. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

0.4630  gram. 
0.4583     " 

Proteid 
digested. 
76.9  per  cent. 
77.1       " 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 
100.2 

10        "      beer 

0.5218     " 

74.0       " 

96.2 

96.7 


distillate        0.4127 


From  these  experiments  witli  beer  containing  a  low  content 
of  alcohol,  it  is  seen  that  the  tendency  is  toward  a  slight  retarda- 
tion of  proteolysis.  The  extent  of  retardation  with  a  given 
percentage  of  beer  is  dependent,  however,  upon  the  digestive 
strength  of  the  gastric  juice.  Where  digestive  action  is  fairly 
strong,  retardation  with,  say,  ten  per  cent,  of  beer  is  very 
slight,  and  if  we  are  to  trust  the  result  of  Experiment  72  the 
inhibitory  action  is  to  be  connected  mainly  with  the  extractive 
matters  present  in  the  beer  rather  than  with  the  alcohol.  In- 
deed, the  amount  of  alcohol  in  these  beers  is  altogether  too 
small  to  have  any  appreciable  retarding  action  upon  the  chem- 
ical processes  of  gastric  digestion  unless  the  beverage  is  con- 
sumed in  very  large  quantity. 

Especially  noticeable  is  the  constant,  though  slight,  stimula- 
tion of  proteolysis  caused  by  a  small  percentage  of  beer. 

According  to  Roberts,  beer,  when  "  well  up,"  is  distinctly 
more  favorable  to  quick  digestion  than   the  same  beer  when 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  201 

"  flat."    This  effect,  he  adds,  is  probably  due  to  the  mechanical 
effect  of  the  escaping  gas  in  stirring  up  the  mixture. 

Ale. 
The  ale  used  in  the  following  experiments  was  "  Burton  Pale 
Ale,"  Bass  &  Co.'s  Extra.     A  partial  analysis  of  one  sample 
gave  the  following  results :  — 

Specific  gravity 1.014  (at  20°  C). 

Alcohol  by  volume 4.0  per  cent. 

Extract 4.4254  grams  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.3530  gram      "         " 

In  another  sample  the  content  of  alcohol  was  5.25  per  cent. 

Experiment  73. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  ^  fluid  egg-albumin  (15  c.  c). 
15  c.  c.  albumin  solution  contain  1.347  grams  dry  albumin. 
0.0024  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Period  of  digestion  6j\  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Ale. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 

Undigested 
albumin. 

0.7861  gram. 
0.7908     " 

Proteid 

digested. 

41.7  per  cent. 
41.3       " 

Relative  proteol}!! 
action. 

100.0 
99.0 

3       " 
5       " 

7       « 

0.7826     " 
0.8304     " 
0.8496     " 

41.9 

38.4       " 
37.0       « 

100.3 
92.0 

88.7 

Ale  residue. 
1  per  cent. 

7       " 

0.7498     " 
0.8094     " 

44.0 
40.0       " 

105.5 
95.9 

Experiment  74. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2^  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 


Ale. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.4263  gram. 

78.7  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

0.4528     " 

77.4       " 

98.3 

3       " 

0.4636     " 

76.9       " 

97.7 

6       " 

0.5031     " 

74.9       « 

95.1 

Experiment  75. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except 
that  the  period  of  digestion  was  1|  hours. 


202 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Fluid 
added. 

0  per  cent. 

2       "     absol.  alcoh. 

Undigested 
tibrin. 

0.5068  gram. 
0.4970     " 

Proteid 

digested. 

74.7  per  cent. 

75.2 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 

100.0 
100.6 

10       «     ale 

0.7218     " 

64.0       " 

85.6 

10       "      "  distillate 

0.5302     " 

73.5       " 

98.3 

10       "      "  residue  ' 

0.6988     " 

65.1 

87.1 

10       "      "         "      2 

0.7000     " 

64.7       « 

86.6 

The  results  are  essentially  of  the  same  order  as  those  obtained 
with  beer,  although  the  ale  appears  to  have  a  somewhat  greater 
retarding  action  than  lager  beer. 

Porter. 
The  porter  used   in  our  experiments  was  labeled  "  Feigen- 
span's,"  Newark,  and  had  the  following  composition :  — 

Specific  gravity 1.011  (at  18.5°  C). 

Alcohol  by  volume 3.75  per  cent. 

Extract 4.4470  grams  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.2586  gram      "        " 

Experiment  76. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =:  blood-fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2^^  hours  at  38°^0°  C. 

p    f  Undigested  Proteid  Relative  proteolytic 

fibrin.  digested.  action. 

0  per  cent.  0.3401  gram.         83.0  per  cent.  100.0 

1  "  0.4038  "  79.9  «  96.2 
3  "  0.4226  "  78.9  "  95.0 
6       "                        0.4335     «             78.4       "  94.4 

Experiment  77. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except 
that  the  period  of  digestion  was  2^  hours :  — 


Fluid 

addel. 
0  per  cent. 
4       "      absol.  alcoh. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 
0.3881  gram. 
0.4118     " 

Proteid 
digested. 

80.6  per  cent. 
79.5       " 

Relat 

ve  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 
98.6 

10       "      porter 

10       "          "     distillate 

0.4208     " 
0.3783     « 

79.0  " 

81.1  " 

98.0 
100.6 

10       "          "     residue ' 
10         »            «            «       2 

0.4480     " 
0.4447     « 

77.6       " 
77.8       « 

96.2 
96.5 

^  Made  up  to  contain  four  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 
*  Dissolved  in  water. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  203 

Porter  is  thus  seen  to  have  about  the  same  retarding  action 
on  pepsin-proteolysis  as  lager  beer,  although  not  showing  the 
stimulation  so  characteristic  of  small  quantities  of  this  latter 
fluid.  Further,  such  retardation  as  is  produced  is  associated 
mainly  with  the  presence  of  the  extractives  rather  than  with 
the  volatile  matters  present  in  the  fluid. 

Stout. 
The  stout  used  was  "  Guiness's  Dublin  Stout,"  with  the  fol- 
lowing composition :  — 

Specific  gravity 1.013. 

Alcohol  by  volume 5.6  per  cent. 

Extract 5.4220  grams  per  100  c.  c. 

Ash 0.3612  gram      "        " 

Experiment  78. 
Conditions  : 

Proteid  =  blood- fibrin  (2  grams). 

0.016  gram  pepsin  ;  0.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Period  of  digestion  2^  hours  at  38°-40°  C. 

g.    .  Undigested  Proteid  Relative  proteolytic 

ftbrin.  digested.  action. 

0  per  cent.  0.4263  gram.         78.7  per  cent.  100.0 

1  «  0.4133  "  79.4  «  100.8 
3  "  0.4440  «  77.8  «  98.8 
6       "                       0.4839    "              75.9       "  96.4 

Experiment  79. 
Conditions  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  except 
that  the  period  of  digestion  was  two  hours  :  — 


Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 

digested. 

Relative  prote 
actiou. 

0  per  cent. 

0.5315  gram. 

73.5  per  cent 

100.0 

2         "     absol.  alcoh. 

0.5390     « 

73.1 

99.4 

10         "     stout 

0.6582    " 

67.1 

91.2 

10        "        "     distillate 

0.5317    " 

73.5 

100.0 

10        "        "     residue ' 

0.6665     " 

66.7 

90.7 

10          «         "          "         2 

0.6675    " 

66.7 

90.7 

Here,  again,  we  have  essentially  the  same  results  as  were  ob- 
tained with  lager  beer  and  ale.  With  ten  per  cent,  of  stout 
there  is  a  distinct  retardation  of   pepsin-proteolysis,   perhaps 

'  Made  up  to  contain  four  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 
-  Dissolved  in  water. 


204  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

even  greater  than  with  either  of  the  other  fluids  of  this  class ; 
a  retardation,  however,  that  is  due  almost  wholly  to  the  con- 
tained extractives  rather  than  to  the  alcohol  or  other  volatile 
matters.  Thus,  while  the  distillate  from  this  liquor  is  entirely 
without  action  upon  pepsin-proteolysis,  the  residue  or  extractive 
matter  inhibits  digestion  to  about  the  same  extent  as  the  bever- 
age itself. 

Taken  collectively,  our  experiments  with  malt  liquors  tend  to 
show  that  the  retarding  effect  of  these  fluids  is,  as  is  the  case 
with  wines,  altogether  out  of  proportion  to  their  content  of  alco- 
hol. Containing,  as  a  rule,  not  much  more  than  from  four  to  six 
per  cent,  of  alcohol,  the  latter,  when  consumed  in  the  ordinary 
forms  of  malt  liquors,  can  have  very  little  influence  upon  the 
chemical  processes  of  gastric  digestion.  When,  however,  these 
beverages  are  consumed  very  freely  with  the  meals,  so  that  the 
digesting  mass  in  the  stomach  contains  fifty  or  sixty  per  cent, 
of  these  fluids,  one  can  easily  see  from  the  results  reported 
that  the  retarding  action  upon  the  solvent  or  digestive  power 
of  the  gastric  juice  must  be  very  considerable,  owing  to  the 
action  of  the  extractives  they  contain.  Taken  in  small  quan- 
tities, on  the  other  hand,  these  malt  liquors  are  without  any 
marked  effect  upon  the  proteolytic  action  of  the  gastric  juice. 

The  inhibitory  action  of  these  fluids  is  to  be  compared  with 
the  inhibitory  action  of  such  beverages  as  tea  and  coffee,  the 
retarding  action  of  which  is  equally  pronounced  or  even  greater 
when  the  latter  are  consumed  in  large  quantities.  In  this  con- 
nection it  seems  no  more  than  proper  to  add  that  the  extractives 
or  solid  matters  ordinarily  present  in  malt  liquors  are  not  espe- 
cially jieculiar  in  possessing  this  retarding  action  upon  pepsin- 
proteolysis.  It  is,  indeed,  a  property  shared  by  many  sub- 
stances, and  does  not  in  itself  necessarily  constitute  an  evil  of 
any  great  magnitude,  unless  the  retardation  is  very  pronounced 
and  liable  to  be  long  continued.  Then,  indeed,  it  may  become 
a  serious  evil,  and  one  sufficient  to  condemn  the  substance 
which  causes  it. 

Comparative  Action  of  Some  Alcoholic  Liquors  on  Pepsin- 
proteolysis. 

The  following  tables,  the  figures  of  which  are  taken  from 
experiments  already  recorded,  may  serve  to  show  the  relative 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  205 

action  of  given  percentages  of  the  more  common  alcoholic 
liquors  on  the  solvent  power  of  the  gastric  juice,  the  results 
in  each  table  having  been  obtained  under  exactly  similar  con- 
ditions :  — 


Per  cent,  of  liquor  in 

Relative  prol 

teolytic  action. 

each  digestive  mixture. 

SLerry, 

Beer. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

1 

95.5 

101.1 

3 

94.8 

98.3 

Sherry. 

Beer. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

3 

97.4 

100.3 

6 

96.5 

98.0 

Whiskey 

Brandy. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

1 

100.3 

100.6 

3 

100.0 

99.7 

6 

98.4 

99.8 

Brandy. 

Sherry. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

10 

97.0 

90.8 

Whiskey. 

Hochheimer. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

10 

99.1 

97.2 

Claret. 

Porter. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

1 

100.9 

96.2 

3 

96.6 

95.0 

6 

98.0 

94.4 

Stout. 

Ale. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

1 

100.8 

98.3 

3        " 

98.8 

97.7 

6 

96.4 

95.1 

Bock-beer. 

Hochheimer. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

1        « 

100.5 

100.6 

3 

98.4 

98.2 

6 

97.9 

96.2 

Before  leaving  this  phase  of  our  subject  it  may  be  wise  to 
emphasize  again  the  exact  scope  of  these  experiments.  It  is  to 
be  remembered  that  the  results  here  recorded  are  capable 
merely  of  throwing  light  upon  the  influence  of  the  various 


206  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

alcoholic  beverages  on  the  digestive  or  solvent  power  of  the 
gastric  juice.  They  are  not  broadly  applicable  to  a  determina- 
tion of  the  influence  of  the  liquors  in  question  on  gastric  diges- 
tion, since  they  afford  no  light  as  to  the  influence  of  these  fluids 
upon  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice,  or  upon  the  mechanical 
movements  of  the  stomach,  or  upon  the  process  of  absorption. 
Hence,  if  we  are  to  be  governed  by  facts,  we  are  not  as  yet 
ready  to  draw  any  broad  generalizations  as  to  the  influence  of 
alcoholic  liquors  upon  gastric  digestion.  We  must  at  present 
confine  ourselves  to  the  influence  of  these  liquors  upon  the  sol- 
vent or  digestive  action  of  pepsin-hydrochloric  acid  or  gastric 
juice,  and  upon  this  question  the  results  here  recorded  speak 
fully  and  clearly. 

B.    PANCKEATIC    DIGESTION. 

In  studying  the  influence  of  alcoholic  fluids  upon  pancreatic 
digestion  our  experiments  have  been  limited  mainly  to  the  pro- 
teolytic action,  or  albumin-digesting  power,  of  the  fluid,  since 
this  may  be  considered  as  the  most  important  digestive  function 
of  the  secretion.  Further,  in  our  experiments  with  saliva,  to 
be  detailed  later  on,  we  have  acquired  all  that  seems  necessary 
for  us  to  know  regarding  the  influence  of  alcoholic  fluids  upon 
the  starch-digesting  power  of  the  amylolytic  ferments  common 
to  both  the  saliva  and  the  pancreatic  fluid.  So  far  as  our 
knowledge  at  present  extends,  there  is  no  difference  between 
the  saliva  and  pancreatic  juice  in  their  digestive  action  on 
farinaceous  foods,  so  that  what  is  found  true  with  regard  to  the 
amylolytic  action  of  the  saliva  is  also  applicable  to  the  pan- 
creatic fluid.  Hence,  in  studying  pancreatic  digestion,  our 
experiments  have  been  limited  to  the  influence  of  alcoholic 
fluids  upon  the  tryptic  ferment  which  is  so  characteristic  of  this 
secretion. 

The  natural  secretion  from  the  pancreatic  gland  has  an  alka- 
line reaction,  but  in  the  small  intestine  pancreatic  digestion  is 
as  liable  to  be  carried  on  in  a  neutral  reacting  fluid  as  in  an 
alkaline  medium,  and  as  our  experiments  were  designed  mainly 
to  show  the  action  of  the  various  alcoholic  fluids  upon  the 
digestive  power  of  the  ferment,  it  seemed  best  to  use  a  neutral 
reacting  pancreatic  juice.  The  latter  was  prepared,  according 
to  the  method  originally  suggested  by  Kiilme,  from  dried  pan- 


DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION.  207 

creas  which  had  been  previously  extracted  with  alcohol  and 
ether.'  Forty  grams  of  the  prepared  pancreas  were  warmed  at 
40°  C.  for  twenty-four  hours  with  500  c.  c,  0.1  per  cent. 
salicylic  acid,  the  solution  filtered  and  neutralized  with  dilute 
sodium  carbonate  and  then  diluted  with  water  to  1000  or  1500 
c.  c.  In  order  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  putrefactive  changes, 
crystals  of  thymol  were  kept  floating  on  the  fluid. 

In  testing  the  digestive  or  proteolytic  action  of  the  pancreatic 
juice  under  the  various  conditions  set  forth,  1  gram  of  dry, 
pulverized  blood-fibrin  was  weighed  out  into  a  suitable  flask, 
25  c.  c.  of  water  containing  sufficient  of  the  alcoholic  liquor  to 
give  the  desired  percentage  to  the  whole  mixture  were  then 
added,  followed  by  25  c.  c.  of  the  neutral  pancreatic  juice,  thus 
making  a  total  volume  of  50  c.  c.  for  each  mixture.  The  mix- 
tures of  each  series  were  then  placed  in  the  same  water-bath  at 
38°— 40°  C,  where  they  were  kept  at  the  body-temperature  for 
six  to  seven  hours  with  frequent  shaking,^  the  flasks  being 
tightly  stopped.  At  the  end  of  the  given  period  the  undis- 
solved fibrin  was  filtered  off  on  weighed  filter-papers,  washed 
thoroughly  with  warm  water,  and  then  dried  at  110°  C.  until  of 
constant  weight.  In  this  manner  it  was  possible  to  measure 
very  accurately  the  influence  of  various  forms  and  quantities  of 
alcoholic  liquors  upon  the  pancreatic  digestion  of  proteid  foods. 

In  view  of  the  position  which  pancreatic  digestion  occupies 
in  the  digestive  process,  it  is  readily  seen  that  it  is  more 
desirable  to  ascertain  the  influence  of  small  quantities  of 
alcoholic  liquors  than  large  amounts,  since  absorption  must 
naturally  lead  to  a  decided  diminution  of  alcohol,  etc.,  before 
these  fluids  can  normally  become  mixed  with  the  pancreatic 
juice  and  partially  digested  food-material  in  the  small  intestine. 
Hence,  we  have  laid  more  stress,  as  a  rule,  upon  the  influence 
of  small  percentages  of  the  various  fluids  experimented  with, 
and  only  occasionally  have  tried  the  action  of  large  quantities. 

'  Unterauchungen  aus  der  physiol.  Institute  d.  Universitat  Heidelberg,  i.  222. 
^  Each  mixture  contained  a  trace  of  thymol  and  sodium  salicylate  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  putrefaction. 


208  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Action  of  Absolute  Alcohol  (99.5-100  Per  Cent.). 

Experiment  80. 
Period  of  digestion  seven  hours. 


AbBoUite 
alcohol. 

UndigeBted 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent.i 

0.5677  gram. 

43.3  per 

cent. 

100.0 

2      " 

0.6102     " 

39.0       ' 

90.0 

6      " 

0.G574     " 

34.3      ' 

79.2 

10      " 

0.7394     " 

26.1       ' 

60.2 

20      « 

0.8440     " 

Experiment 

15.6      ' 

81. 

36.0 

'eriod  of  digestion  six  hours. 

Absolute 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3467  gram. 

65.33  per 

cent. 

100.0 

0.25      " 

0.3375     « 

66.25      " 

101.4 

0.50      " 

0.3.563    " 

64.37       " 

98.5 

1.00      " 

0.3599     " 

64.01       " 

97.9 

2.00      « 

0.3521     " 

64.79      " 

99.2 

3.00      " 

0.3780     « 

Experimeni 

62.20      « 

82. 

95.2 

*eriod  of  digest 

ion  six  hours. 

Absolute 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3058  gram. 

69.42  per  cent. 

100.0 

1       « 

0.3220     « 

67.80      " 

97.6 

3      « 

0.3689     " 

63.11       " 

90.9 

5      " 

0.3888     « 

61.12      « 

88.0 

10      " 

0.5080    « 

49.20      " 

70.8 

15      " 

0.5931     « 

40.69      " 

58.6 

20      " 

0.7012     " 

29.88      " 

43.0 

These  results  with  absolute  alcohol  indicate  that  the  pro- 
teolytic ferment  of  the  pancreatic  juice  is  more  sensitive  to 
absolute  alcohol  than  the  ferment  of  the  gastric  juice.  Re- 
tardation of  digestive  action  is  more  pronounced  even  with 
small  amounts  of  alcohol.  Further,  as  in  the  case  with  pepsin, 
the  weaker  the  digestive  powers  of  the  pancreatic  juice  the 
greater  the  retarding  action  of  absolute  alcohol.  This  is  clearly 
seen  in  comparison  of  Experiments  80  and  82,  and  is  quite  in 
harmony  with  what  is  known  regarding  the  general  nature  of 

1  The  percentage  of  fluid  added  is  in  every  instance  given  by  volume 
unless  otherwise  specified. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


209 


the  digestive  ferments,  or  enzymes.  When  the  amount  of  alco- 
hol present  in  the  digesting  mixture  is  less  than  one  per  cent., 
the  retardation  of  digestive  action  is  very  slight,  provided  the 
ferment  is  fairly  vigorous  in  its  action. 

■Whiskey  (with  50  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol). 
Experiment  83. 
Period  of  digestion  8  hours. 


Wliiskey. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

0.5147  gram. 
0.5390    " 

Proteid 

digested. 
48.6  per  cent. 
46.1       " 

Relative  proteolytic 

action. 

100.0 
94.8 

3       « 

0.5556     " 

44.5      « 

91.5 

5       « 

0.5635    « 

43.7      " 

89.9 

10       « 

0.5972     " 

40.3      « 

82.9 

Absolute  alcohol. 
5  per  cent. 

0.5621     " 

43.8      " 

90.1 

Experiment 

84. 

Period  of  digestion  7|  hours. 

Fluid 
added. 

0  per  cent. 
10         "    whiskey 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

0.3272  gram. 
0.4002     " 

Proteid 
digested. 

67.3  per  cent. 
60.0 

Relative  proteolytio 
action. 

100.0 
89.1 

10         "         "     distil. 

0.3860     " 

61.4        " 

91.2 

10         "         "     residue       0.3360     « 

66.4 

98.6 

5        "    absol.  alcohol       0.3858     " 

61.5 

91.3 

From  these  results  it  is  plain  that  even  small  amounts  of 
whiskey  are  detrimental  to  the  digestive  action  of  pancreatic 
juice  on  proteid  foods.  The  sensitiveness  of  the  enzyme  to  this 
form  of  alcoholic  liquor  is  quite  marked.  Further,  it  is  to  be 
noticed  that,  as  with  alcohol,  the  weaker  the  digestive  fluid  the 
stronger  is  the  retarding  action  of  the  whiskey.  It  is  also  seen 
that  the  inhibition  produced  by  a  given  percentage  of  whiskey 
is  somewhat  greater  than  that  caused  by  a  corresponding  per- 
centage of  alcohol,  thus  indicating  that  there  must  be  some 
other  retarding  agent  aside  from  the  alcohol  present  in  the 
whiskey.  The  general  character  of  this  substance  is  apparent 
when  we  compare  the  action  of  the  distillate  and  the  residue 
from  a  given  volume  of  whiskey  with  that  of  the  whiskey  itself. 

Thus,  the  distillate,  i.  e.,  the  volatile  matter  of  the  whiskey, 
causes  less  retardation  of  digestive  action  than  the  whiskey 
itself,  although  its  action  is  exactly  equal  to  that  of  a  corre- 


210  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

spending  strength  of  absolute  alcohol.  Hence,  the  difference 
in  action  must  be  attributed  to  the  character  of  the  solid  matter 
present  in  the  liquor,  even  though  the  amount  present  is  small.^ 
The  experiment,  indeed,  shows  that  the  residue  has  a  sufficient 
inhibitory  action  upon  tryptic  digestion  to  account  fully  for 
the  difference  in  action  between  whiskey  and  a  corresponding 
strength  of  alcohol.  As  the  whiskey  residue  is  decidedly  acid 
in  reaction,  and  the  tryptic  ferment  is  well  known  to  be  sensi- 
tive to  the  presence  of  acids,  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  it 
is  the  presence  of  the  latter  which  is  the  cause  in  part,  at  least, 
of  the  greater  inhibitory  action  of  the  whiskey  over  that  of  cor- 
responding strengths  of  alcohol. 

Influence  of  So-called  Fusel  Oils  on  the  Proteolytic  Action  of 
Pancreatic  Juice. 

As  already  described  under  the  head  of  gastric  digestion, 
whiskey,  brandy,  and  other  distilled  liquors  of  this  class  are 
supposedly  liable  to  contamination  with  so-called  fusel  oils,  of 
which  the  higher  alcohols  are  the  chief  constituents. 

We  have  therefore  studied  the  influence  of  a  number  of  re- 
presentative alcohols  of  this  type  upon  trypsin-proteolysis  with 
a  view  to  ascertaining  what  effect  their  possible  presence  in 
whiskeys  and  other  like  liquors  might  have  upon  the  rate  of 
pancreatic  digestion.^ 


Amyl 

Alcohol. 

Exper 

meut  85. 

Period  of  digestion  6  hours. 

Amyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.4090  gram 

59.1 

per  cent. 

100.0 

0.05 

0.4113     " 

58.8 

99.6 

0.10 

0.4117     " 

58.8 

99.5 

0.25 

0.4149     " 

58.5 

99.0 

0.50 

0.4200     " 

58.0 

98.1 

1.00 

0.4740     " 

52.6 

89.0 

2.00        « 

0.5140     " 

48.6 

82.2 

1  The  whiskey  contained  about  0.3  per  cent,  of  solid  matter. 
^  These  experiments  were  carried  out  in  our  laboratory  by  Edward  E. 
Brownell,  Ph.  B. 


DIGESTION   AND   SECRETION. 


211 


Experiment  86. 

Period  of 

digestion  6  hours. 

Amyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  ceut. 

0.3107  gram. 

68.9 

per  cent. 

100.0 

0.05 

0.3153     " 

68.4 

" 

99.1 

0.10 

0.3442     « 

65.5 

« 

95.1 

0.25 

0.3350     " 

66.5 

" 

96.4 

0.50 

0.3462     " 

65.3 

« 

94.8 

1.00 

0.4027     " 

59.7 

« 

86.6 

2.00 

0.4598     " 

54.0 

« 

78.3 

Isobutyl  Alcohol. 


Experiment  87. 

Period  of  d 

gestion  6  hours. 

Isobutyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent 

0.4185  gram. 

58.1  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.05 

0.4282     " 

57.1 

98.3 

0.10 

0.4305     " 

66.9 

97.9 

0.25 

0.4360     " 

66.4 

97.0 

0.50 

0.4478     " 

65.2        " 

94.9 

1.00 

0.4491     " 

55.0 

94.7 

2.00 

0.4827     « 

47.5 

81.7 

Experiment  88. 

Period  of  digestion  6  hours. 

Isobutyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolj^ic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3776  gram. 

62.2  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.05 

0.3796     " 

62.0 

99.7 

0.10 

0.3890     " 

61.1 

98.1 

0.25 

0.3864     « 

61.3 

98.5 

0.50 

0.4116     " 

68.8 

94.5 

1.00 

0.4230     « 

57.7 

92.7 

2.00 

0.4561     " 

54.3 

81.5 

Experiment  89. 

Period  of  digestion  6  hours. 

Isobutyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.2980  gram. 

70.2  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

0.3334     " 

66.6 

94.9 

3 

0.4052     « 

59.4 

84.7 

6 

0.5431     « 

45.6 

65.0 

10 

0.7333     " 

26.6        « 

37.9 

15        " 

0.7743     " 

22.5 

32.1 

20 

0.7813     " 

21.8 

31.1 

212 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Propyl  Alcohol. 
Experiment  90. 
Period  of  digestion  6  hours. 


Propyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid                 Relative  proteolytic 
digested.                            action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.4096  gram. 

59.0  per 

cent.               100.0 

0.0.5 

0.4088     " 

59.1 

100.1 

0.10 

0.4081     " 

59.2 

100.2 

0.25        « 

0.4100     " 

69.0 

99.9 

0.50 

0.4159     " 

58.4 

98.7 

1.00 

0.4333     " 

56.6 

95.9 

2.00 

0.4336     " 

56.6 

95.9 

Experiment  91. 

Period  of  digest 

ion  6  hours. 

Propyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digestec 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3920  gram. 

60.8  per 

cent.               100.0 

0.05 

0.3702     " 

62.9 

103.6 

0.10 

0.3875     " 

61.2 

100.7 

0.25 

0.3946     " 

60.5 

99.5 

0.50 

0.4030     « 

59.7 

98.2 

1.00 

0.4082     « 

59.1 

97.3 

2.00 

0.4210     " 

67.9 

95.2 

Experiment  92. 

Period  of  digestion  6  hours. 

Propyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteic 
digeste 

1                Relative  proteolytic 

d.                            action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3486  gram. 

65.1  per 

cent.                100.0 

1 

0.3420     " 

65.8 

101.0 

3 

0.3900     " 

61.0 

93.6 

5 

0.4456     « 

55.4 

85.1 

10 

0.6032     " 

39.6 

60.9 

15 

0.7850     " 

21.5 

33.0 

20 

0.9255     " 

7.4 

11.4 

diethyl 

Alcohol. 

Experiment  93. 

Period  of  digest 

on  6  hours. 

Methyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Protei 
digeste 

Relative  proteolytic 
1.                             action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3850  gram. 

61.5  per 

cent.                100.0 

0.25 

0.3832     " 

61.8 

100.3 

0.50 

0.3931     " 

60.7 

98.7 

1.00 

0.3813     " 

61.8 

100.6 

2.00 

0.3812     " 

61.8 

100.6 

3.00 

0.3862     " 

61.3 

99.7 

DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 
Experiment  94. 
Period  of  digestion  6  hours. 


213 


Methyl 
alcohol. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3423  gram. 

65.7  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

0.3702     « 

62.9         " 

95:7 

3 

0.4143     " 

58.5 

89.2 

5 

0.4237     " 

57.6 

87.7 

10 

0.5253     " 

47.4 

72.3 

15 

0.6195     « 

38.0 

56.3 

20 

0.7170     « 

28.3        " 

43.0 

The  following  experiment  was  designed  to  show  the  com- 
parative action  of  methyl,  ethyl,  propyl,  and  isobutyl  alcohols 
upon  trypsin-proteolysis.  The  period  of  digestion  was  six  hours 
at  38°-40°  C. 


Experiment  96. 

Alcohol 

Undigested 

Proteid 

Relative  proteolyt 

added. 

flbriii. 

digested. 

action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3117  gram. 

68.8  per  cent 

100.0 

5 

'         methyl 

0.3968     " 

60.3 

87.6 

5 

'         ethyl 

0.4081      " 

59.2        " 

86.0 

5 

'         propyl 

0.4620     " 

53.8        « 

78.1 

5 

'         isobutyl 

0.5183     " 

48.2 

70.0 

15 

'         methyl 

0.5926     « 

40.7 

59.1 

15 

'         ethyl 

0.6213     " 

37.8 

54.9 

15 

'         propyl 

0.8155     " 

18.4        " 

26.7 

15 

'         isobutyl 

0.8024     « 

19.7 

28.6 

A  careful  scrutiny  of  all  the  foregoing  results  obtained  with 
the  alcohols  liable  to  be  present  in  so-called  fusel  oils  shows 
that  their  inhibitory  action  upon  trypsin-proteolysis  is  some- 
what greater  than  that  of  ordinary  ethyl  alcohol.  When  it  is 
considered,  however,  that  they  can  at  the  most  be  present  in 
whiskeys,  brandies,  and  the  like  only  in  very  small  quantities,  it 
is  apparent  that  their  retarding  action  can  have  little  practical 
influence  in  modifying  ordinary  proteolytic  action.  Physi- 
ologically, however,  the  results  obtained  in  Experiment  95  are 
extremely  interesting,  since  they  tend  to  show  that  the  retarding 
action  of  these  alcohols  on  trypsin-proteolysis  increases  with  the 
weight  of  the  alcohol.  Thus,  in  digestive  mixtures  containing 
five  per  cent,  of  these  alcohols,  the  lowest  member  of  the  series, 
methyl  alcohol,  has  the  least  inhibitory  action,  while  isobutyl 
alcohol,  the  highest  alcohol  tested,  has  the  greatest  retarding 


214 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


effect.  If  these  alcohols  were  present  in  any  quantity  in  alco- 
holic liquors,  their  retarding  action  on  trypsin-proteolysis  would 
unquestionably  be  a  very  important  factor  ;  but  as  there  is  no 
evidence  that  they  are  ever  present  in  more  than  traces,  their 
action  in  this  direction  can  have  little  practical  importance. 


Brandy  (with  48  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol). 

Experiment 

96. 

Period  of  digestion  1^^  hours. 

Brandy. 

UndiRested 
fibrin. 

Proteid                Eelat 
digested. 

ire  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.5531  gram. 

44.7  per  cent. 

100.0 

1         « 

0.5701     « 

43.0 

96.1 

3 

0.5808     " 

42.0 

93.9 

5 

0.5812     " 

41.9 

93.7 

10 

0.6131     " 

38.7 

86.5 

Absolute  alcohol. 

5  per  cent. 

0.6135     " 

38.7 

86.5 

Experiment 

97. 

Period  of  digestion  8  hours. 

Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid            Relative  proteolytic 
digested.                      action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.2974  gram. 

72.1  per  cent. 

100.0 

10        "    brandy 

0.3522      " 

64.8 

89.8 

10 

distil.      0.3635     " 

63.7 

88.3 

10 

residue    0.3083      " 

69.2 

95.9 

5         "     absol.  alcohol       0.3475      " 

65.3 

90.5 

Here  we  have  much  the  same  results  as  were  obtained  with 
whiskey.  Thus,  retardation  of  proteolysis  is  quite  pronounced 
with  ten  per  cent,  of  brandy,  but  with  one  per  cent,  it  is  com- 
paratively slight.  Unlike  whiskey,  however,  the  action  of  the 
brandy  is  due  almost  entirely  to  the  alcohol  it  contains,  al- 
though the  solid  matter  present  in  it  has  some  retarding  action. 

Rum  (with  51  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol). 
Experiment  98. 
Period  of  digestion  7|  hours. 


_ 

Undigested 

Proteid 

Relative  proteolytic 

um. 

fibrin. 

digested. 

action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.6611  gram. 

43.9 

per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

0.5805     " 

42.0 

" 

95.6 

3 

0.6077     " 

39.3 

« 

89.5 

5        « 

0.6230     " 

37.7 

" 

85.8 

10 

0.6661     « 

33.4 

" 

76.0 

Absolute  alcohol. 

5  per  cent. 

0.6339      " 

36.7 

" 

83.5 

DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  215 


Experiment 

99. 

Period  of  digestion  8  hours. 

Fluid                                 Undigested 
added.                                     fibrin. 

0  per  cent.                          0.2794  gram. 
10         "      rum                       0.3620     " 

Proteid 
digested. 

72.1  per  cent. 
63.8 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

100.0 

88.0 

10        "        "    distil.           0.3562     " 

64.4 

89.3 

10        "        "     residue        0.2974     " 

70.3 

97.5 

5        «      absol.  alcohol      0.3475     «  65.3        "  90.5 

With  rum,  retardation  of  proteolysis  is  quite  pronounced  in 
the  presence  of  even  five  per  cent,  of  the  liquor,  although,  as 
in  other  cases,  the  exact  amount  of  retardation  is  dependent 
largely  upon  the  strength  or  activity  of  the  pancreatic  juice. 
Further,  while  the  retarding  action  is  due  mainly  to  the  con- 
tained alcohol,  yet  it  is  evident  that  the  solid  matter  of  the  rum 
has  a  somewhat  deleterious  influence,  the  two  factors  combining 
to  cause  the  slow  digestive  action  of  mixtures  containing  five 
and  ten  per  cent,  of  rum. 

If  one  should  attempt  a  comparison  of  the  action  of  these 
strong  alcoholic  liquors  upon  pepsin-proteolysis  and  tryjjsin- 
proteolysis,  the  conclusion,  we  think,  would  be  that  pepsin- 
hydrochloric  acid  is  far  less  sensitive  to  the  action  of  these 
alcoholic  fluids  than  trypsin.  The  latter  is  far  more  liable  to 
be  retarded  in  its  digestive  activity  than  pepsin  by  small 
amounts  of  these  fluids.  Further,  in  trypsin-proteolysis  there 
is  not  quite  so  close  a  relationship  between  the  extent  of 
retardation  and  the  content  of  alcohol  in  the  fluid  under 
examination.  In  other  words,  the  tryptic  ferment  is  not  only 
more  sensitive  to  the  action  of  alcohol,  but  it  is  likewise  more 
inclined  to  be  affected  by  the  various  extractives,  especially  the 
acid-reacting  bodies,  present  in  these  liquors  than  is  the  case 
with  pepsin. 


216 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Sherry  (with  21  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol  and  4.7  Per  Cent,  of  Solid 

Matter). 


Experiment 

100. 

Period  of  digestion  8.]  hours. 

Sherry. 

UndiReeted 
flbrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.5246  gram. 

47.6  per  cent. 

100.0 

1       " 

0.5473     « 

45.3      " 

95.1 

3      " 

0.5803     " 

42.0      " 

88.2 

5      " 

0.6200     « 

38.0      " 

79.8 

10      " 

0.7128     " 

28.8      " 

60.5 

Absolute  alcohol 

2  per  cent. 

0.5776     " 

42.3      « 

88.8 

Experiment 

101. 

Period  of  digestion  7^  hours. 

Fluid 

UodigeBted 

Proteid 

Relative  proteolytic 

added. 

fibrin. 

digested. 

action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3272  gram. 

67.3  per  ceni 

t.          100.0 

10       "       sherry                   0.4452      " 

55.5      " 

82.4 

10      « 

distil.         0.3678      " 

63.3      " 

94.0 

10      " 

residue       0.4082      " 

59.2      " 

87.9 

5      "      absol 

,  alcohol      0.3858      " 

61.5      « 

91.3 

Claret  (with  10  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol  and  3.3  Per  Cent,  of  Solid 
Matter). 


Experiment 

102. 

Period  of  digestion  7|  hours. 

Claret. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolj-tic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.5799  gram. 

42.1  per  cent. 

100.0 

1       " 

0.5966     " 

40.4      « 

95.9 

3      " 

0.6475     " 

35.3      " 

86.2 

5      « 

0.6963     " 

30.4      '• 

72.2 

10      « 

0.8539     " 

14.7      " 

34.9 

Absolute  alcohol. 

2  per  cent 

0.6020     " 

39.8      « 

94.5 

Experiment 

103. 

Period  of  digestion  6  hours. 

Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3604  gram. 

64.0  per  cent 

100.0 

10      "          claret 

0.5842     " 

41.6      « 

65.0 

10      "             "    . 

distil.       0.3963     " 

60.4      " 

94.3 

10      " 

residue     0.5403     " 

46.0      " 

71.8 

1      "          absol. 

alcohol  0.3973     " 

60.3      " 

94.2 

DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION. 


217 


Hochheimer  (with  11  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol  and  1.8  Per  Cent,  of 
Solid  Matter). 


Experiment 

104. 

Period  of  digestion  8|  hours. 

Hochheimer. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 

digested. 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.5325  gram. 

46.8  per  cent. 

100.0 

3      " 

0.5991     " 

40.1       " 

85.6 

5      " 

0.0357     " 

36.5       " 

77.9 

10      « 

0.7564     « 

24.4      « 

62.1 

Absolute  alcohol. 

1  per  cent. 

0.5785     « 

42.2      " 

90.1 

Experiment  105. 
Period  of  digestion  6  liours. 


Proteid 


0  per  cent. 


10  "  hochheimer 

10  "  "  distil 

10  "  "  residue   0.4760 

1  "  absol.  alcohol  0.3973 


0.3604  gram. 
0.5267     " 
0.3993     " 


64.0  per  cent 
47.4      " 

60.1  " 
52.4  « 
60.3      " 


Relative  proteo- 
lytic action. 

100.0 
74,0 
93.9 
81.8 
94.2 


Comparative  Action  of  Strong  Liquors  and  Wines. 
Experiment  106. 
Period  of  digestion  7+  hours. 


Fluid 

Undigested 

Proteid 

Relative  proteolytic 

added. 

fibrin. 

digested. 

action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.5945  gram. 

40.6  per  cent 

100.0 

6 

'         absol.  alcohol 

0.6622     " 

33.8       " 

83.2 

10 

'         whiskey 

0.6844     " 

31.6       " 

77.8 

10 

'         brandy 

0.6465     " 

35.4      " 

87.11 

10 

'         rum 

0.6818     " 

31.9      " 

78.5 

10 

'         sherry 

0.7506     « 

25.0      " 

61.5 

10 

'         hochheimer 

0.7850     " 

21.5      " 

52.9 

10 

'         claret 

0.8533     " 

14.7      " 

36.2 

Considering  now  the  import  of  the  results  obtained  by  our 
study  of  the  action  of  these  wines  upon  trypsin-proteolysis,  it  is 
evident  that  these  fluids  have  a  far  greater  inhibitory  action 
than  the  stronger  liquors,  such  as  whiskey,  brandy,  etc.  Fur- 
ther, it  is  plain  that  the  action  of  any  given  wine  upon  the 
tryptic  digestion  of  proteid  foods  is  quite  independent  of  its 

'  This  result  is  presumably  too  high,  although  we  know  of  no  cause  of 
error. 


218  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

content  of  alcohol.  Retardation  of  digestive  action  is  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  alcohol  present  in  the  fluid.  Contrast,  for 
example,  the  action  of  claret,  with  the  smallest  percentage  of 
alcohol,  with  that  of  sherry,  which  contains  double  the  amount 
of  alcohol.  Further,  between  claret  and  the  white  wine  (hoch- 
heimer)  there  is  a  wide  difference  in  inhibitory  action,  although 
the  difference  in  the  content  of  alcohol  amounts  to  only  one  per 
cent.  The  alcohol  present  in  these  wines  plainly  exerts  a 
retarding  influence  upon  proteolysis,  as  is  apparent  from  the 
results  obtained  with  the  distillates  from  the  respective  fluids, 
and  in  this  connection  it  is  to  be  noted  tliat  the  retardation  pro- 
duced by  the  distillates  from  both  claret  and  hochheimer  is 
essentially  the  same,  and,  moreover,  is  practically  identical  with 
the  retardation  caused  by  a  corresponding  percentage  of  abso- 
lute alcohol. 

The  greater  part  of  the  retardation  produced  by  these  wines, 
however,  is  clearly  connected  with  the  character  of  the  solid 
matter  present  in  the  fluids.  Thus,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  there 
is  no  close  relationship,  at  least,  between  the  amount  of  solid 
matter  in  the  wine  and  its  inhibitoi-y  action.  We  therefore 
sought  for  some  explanation  of  the  above  results  in  the  specific 
character  of  this  solid  or  non-volatile  matter,  and  our  conclusion 
is  that  the  retardation  is  due  in  great  part  to  the  amount  of  free 
acid  and  acid  salts  contained  in  the  respective  fluids ;  a  conclu- 
sion which  will  apply  not  only  to  the  wine  residues,  but  likewise 
to  the  solid  matter  contained  in  the  stronger  alcoholic  fluids. 

The  acidity  of  these  fluids  was  determined  by  neutralization 
of  a  given  volume  with  a  standard  solution  of  potassium  hy- 
droxide, containing  0.2  per  cent.  KOH.  The  relative  acidity 
is  indicated  by  the  following  figures,  which  show  the  number  of 
cubic  centimetres  of  the  alkali  solution  required  to  neutralize 
25  c.  c.  of  the  respective  liquors  :  — 

25  c.  c.  brandy required  3.0  c.  c.  alkali  solution. 

25    "     whiskey "        3.5    "  " 

25    "     rum "      15.0    "  " 

25    "     sherry "      58.5    "  " 

25    "     hochheimer       ...  "      80.3    «  " 

25    "     claret "      87.0    "  " 

Trypsin,  the  proteolytic  ferment  of  the  pancreatic  juice,  is 
well  known  to  be  extremely  sensitive  to  the  presence  of  acids, 


DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION.  219 

and  when  this  fact  is  remembered  we  have,  perhaps,  in  the 
above  data,  a  full  explanation  of  the  marked  retardation  of 
trypsin-proteolysis  caused  by  the  above  acid  wines ;  a  retarda- 
tion far  greater  than  that  caused  by  the  alcohol  contained  in 
them.  Further,  the  inhibitory  action  on  tryptic  digestion  pro- 
duced by  the  solid  matter  present  in  whiskey,  brandy,  and 
rum  is  likewise  to  be  assigned,  in  part  at  least,  to  this  same 
cause.  In  addition  to  this  possible  explanation  it  must  also  be 
remembered  that  many  neutral  salts,  such  as  are  liable  to  be 
present  in  these  liquors,  likewise  have  an  inhibitory  action  on 
proteolytic  enzymes. 


Lager  Beer  (with  1.5  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol  and  7  Per  Cent,  of  Solid 
Matter). 


Experiment 

107. 

Period  of  digestion  8  hours. 

Beer. 

Undigested 
Hbriu. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.5388  gram. 

46.2  per  cent. 

100.0 

1        " 

0.5596     " 

44.1 

95.4 

3 

0.5769     " 

42.4 

91.7 

5 

0.5817     " 

41.9        " 

90.7 

10 

0.6147     " 

38.6        « 

83.6 

Experiment 

108. 

Period  of  digestion  7^^  hours. 

Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3203  gram. 

68.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

10         "    beer 

0.3602     " 

64.0 

94.1 

10         "      "     distil. 

0.3487     « 

65.2        « 

95.8 

10         "      "     residue 

0.3480     "  ' 

65.2 

95.8 

«    absol.  alcohol       0.3439 


96.6 


Porter  (with  3.7  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol  and  4.4  Per  Cent,  of  Solid 
Matter). 


Experiment 

109. 

Period  of  digestion  7|  hours. 

Porter. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 

digested. 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.5102  gram. 

49.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

0.5095     " 

49.1 

100.2 

3 

0.5104     " 

49.0 

100.0 

5        " 

0.5267     " 

47.4        " 

96.7 

10 

0.5834     " 

41.7 

85.1 

Absolute  alcobol. 

1  per  cent. 

0.5318     " 

46.9 

95.7 

220 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Experiment  110. 
Period  of  digestion  Bf^  hours. 


Fluid 
added. 

UndigeBted 
Bbrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolyti 
action. 

0 

per  cent. 

0.3919  gram. 

60.9  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

"    porter 

0.4059     " 

59.5 

97.7 

10 

«            a 

0.4719     « 

52.9 

86.8 

10 

"         "    distil. 

0.4071     " 

59.3 

97.3 

10 

"         "    residue 

0.4163     " 

58.4 

95.8 

1 

"    absol.  alcohol 

0.4015     " 

59.9 

98.3 

Bass's  Ale  (with  4  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol  and  4.4  Per  Cent,  of  Solid 
Matter). 


Ale. 

0  per  cent. 

1  " 
3 

5 
10        " 


Experiment 

111. 

jn  7  jV  hours. 

Undigested 
tibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0.4671  gram. 

53.3  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.4624     " 

53.8 

100.9 

0.4949     " 

50.6 

94.9 

0.5160     " 

48.4 

90.8 

0.5311     " 

46.9        « 

87.9 

Experiment  112. 
Period  of  digestion  7  jV  hours. 


Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3203  gram. 

68.0  per  cent. 

100.0 

10        "    ale 

0.3772     " 

62.3 

91.6 

10        "     "  distil. 

0.3386     " 

66.2 

97.3 

10         "     "  residue 

0.3684     " 

63.2 

92.9 

1         "    absol.  alcohol 

0.3439     " 

65.7 

96.6 

The  following  experiment  sliows  the  comparative  action  of 
these  malt  liquors  when  tested  under  exactly  the  same  condi- 
tions :  — 

Experiment  113. 

Period  of  digestion  5  hours. 


Fluid 
added. 

Undigested 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relat 

ve  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3919  gram. 

60.9  per  cent. 

100.0 

10        "    beer 

0.4466     " 

65.4 

90.9 

10         "    ale 

0.4686     " 

53.2 

87.3 

10         "    porter 

0.4719     " 

52.9 

86.8 

1         "    absol. 

alcohol 

0.4015     " 

59.9 

98.3 

From  these  results  it  is  manifest  that  the  malt  liquors,  as  re- 


DIGESTION   AND  SECRETION.  221 

presented  by  the  above  samples,  have  far  less  retarding  action 
on  trypsin-proteolysis  than  do  wines.  This  fact,  however,  is 
not  connected  with  the  smaller  content  of  alcohol,  but  rather 
with  the  amount  and  character  of  the  extract  or  solid  matter  of 
the  fluid.  Thus,  lager  beer,  with  only  1.5  per  cent,  of  alcohol, 
when  present  in  small  amount,  has  a  greater  retarding  action 
than  either  porter  or  ale,  although  these  fluids  contain  three  to 
four  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  The  beer,  however,  contains  nearly 
twice  as  much  solid  matter  as  the  other  fluids,  and  its  greater 
inhibitory  power  is  presumably  due  to  this  cause.  Small 
amounts  of  porter  and  ale  have  no  noticeable  retarding  action 
whatever,  but  the  presence  of  five  or  ten  per  cent,  of  either  of 
these  malt  liquors  leads  to  a  decided  diminution  of  digestive 
power. 

None  of  these  malt  liquors  was  very  strongly  acid ;  thus,  the 
acidity  of  the  ale  was  only  slightly  above  that  of  the  sample 
of  rum,  while  the  lager  beer  was  considerably  less  acid.  The 
porter  alone  was  strongly  acid,  its  acidity  being  nearly  half 
that  of  the  sherry  wine.  Plainly,  the  acidity  of  these  malt 
fluids  is  not  a  very  important  factor  in  their  retarding  action 
on  trypsin-proteolysis. 

Doubtless,  many  non-alcoholic  beverages  have  an  equally 
pronounced  inhibitory  action  on  the  digestive  processes,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  inorganic  salts  and  other  extractives.  Tea 
and  coffee,  owing  to  the  tannin  they  contain,  are  known  to 
exert  such  an  influence,  and  we  may  cite  the  following  experi- 
ment with  ginger  ale  as  an  illustration  of  inhibitory  action 
caused  presumably  by  the  extractive  matters  contained  therein : 


Experiment  114. 

Period  of  digestion  7  hours. 

Ginger 
ale. 

Undigested    t 
fibrin. 

Proteid 
digested. 

Relative  proteolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.3260  gram. 

67.4  per  cent. 

100.0 

1 

0.3553     " 

64.5        " 

95.7 

3        « 

0.3574     " 

64.3        « 

95.4 

5 

0.3562     " 

64.4 

95.5 

10        " 

0.3866     " 

61.4 

91.0 

Absolute  alcohol. 

1  per  cent.  0.3361      "  66.4         "  98.5 

In  contrast  to  this  experiment,  we  report  the  following  re- 
sults obtained  with  bottled  "  soda  water  "  ;  i.  e.,  water  simply 


222  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

charged  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  may  be  offered  as  evi- 
dence that  it  is  possible  to  have  pancreatic  digestion  without 
retardation. 

Experiment  115. 

Period  of  digestion  6^  hours. 

Soda  Undigested  Proteid 

water.  fibriu. 


0  per  cent.  0.4692  gram.  63.1  per  cent.  100.0 

1  "  0.4695  "  53.1  "  100.0 
3  "  0.4675  "  53.3  "  100.3 
5        "  0.4690     "  53.1         "  100.0 

Comparative    Action    of    Some   Alcoholic    Liquors    on   Trypsin- 
proteolysis. 

The  comparative  action  of  some  of  these  alcoholic  liquors 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  results,  which  are  taken  from 
preceding  experiments,  where  all  of  the  conditions  were  strictly 
comparable  :  — 


ir  ceut.  of  alcoholic  fluid 

Relative  proteolytic 

:  action. 

in  digestive  mixture. 

Rum. 

Br.indy. 

Proof  spirits. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

10 

88.0 

89.8 

90.5 

Whiskey. 

Sherry. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

10        " 

89.1 

82.4 

Claret. 

Hochheimer. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

10        « 

65.0 

74.0 

Beer. 

Ale. 

0  per  cent. 

100.0 

100.0 

10        " 

94.1 

91.6 

In  concluding  this  chapter  of  our  subject,  we  may  repeat  that 
distilled  alcoholic  liquors,  such  as  whiskey,  brandy,  etc.,  have  a 
far  greater  retarding  action  upon>  trypsin-proteolysis  than  upon 
pepsin-proteolysis.  Further,  this  retardation  is  not  due  wholly 
to  the  contained  alcohol,  but  is  atti-ibutable  in  part  to  the  solid 
matter  present.  This  latter,  however,  in  a  distilled  liquor 
should  obviously  be  very  small,  and  it  is  quite  apparent  that  if 
due  care  is  used  in  the  distillation  and  rectification  of  such  a 
liquor  and  no  additions  are  made,  the  only  solid  matter  should 
be  such  as  is  extracted  from  the  cask  in  which  the  liquor  is 
stored.      The  liquors  in  question,  however,  did  contain  some 


DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION.  223 

extractive  matter  other  than  tannin,  and  to  this  material,  as  well 
as  to  the  tannin  and  the  alcohol,  the  retardation  of  trypsin- 
proteolysis  is  unquestionably  due.  Wines,  with  their  high 
acidity  and  low  alcoholic  strength,  exert  a  retarding  action  on 
tryptic  digestion  more  nearly  proportional  to  the  acidity  than  to 
the  amount  of  alcohol,  or  even  to  their  content  of  solid  matter. 
All  three  of  these  elements,  however,  undoubtedly  combine  to 
produce  the  results  recorded.  The  malt  liquors,  on  the  other 
hand,  owe  their  retarding  influence  mainly  to  the  large  per- 
centage of  extractives  of  various  sorts  which  they  contain,  the 
alcohol  playing  a  minor  part  in  the  inhibition  caused  by  the 
fluids  of  this  class. 

C.     SALIVARY   DIGESTION. 

In  considering  the  influence  of  alcoholic  beverages  on  salivary 
digestion,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  latter  process  has  for 
its  main  object  the  digestion  of  the  farinaceous  foods.  This 
property  is  shared  in  common  with  the  pancreatic  juice,  the 
utilization  of  all  farinaceous  foods  by  the  body  being  depend- 
ent almost  wholly  upon  the  so-called  amylolytic  power  of  these 
two  secretions. 

Salivary  digestion  is  a  comparatively  rapid  process,  the  trans- 
formation of  the  insoluble  starch  into  soluble  dextrins  and  sugar 
taking  place  in  a  relatively  short  period,  as  contrasted  with 
the  proteolytic  action  of  either  the  gastric  or  pancreatic  juice. 
Amylaceous  or  farinaceous  foods  are  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  saliva  in  the  mouth  for  only  a  short  interval,  but  the  evi- 
dence at  present  available  points  to  the  probable  continuation  of 
salivary  digestion  in  the  stomach  for  from  ten  to  thirty  minutes 
before  the  amylolytic  ferment  is  killed  by  the  increasing  acidity 
of  the  gastric  juice.  In  view  of  this  relatively  short  period  of 
digestion,  retardation  of  amylolytic  action  may  become  a  serious 
matter,  since  even  slight  retardation  may  mean  the  loss  of  more 
or  less  nutriment  to  the  body.  The  amylolytic  ferment  of  the 
pancreatic  juice,  however,  may  be  able  to  convert  the  un- 
changed starch  in  the  small  intestine,  providing  the  influence 
of  the  retarding  agent  does  not  extend  so  far.  But  in  any 
event,  retardation  or  stoppage  of  salivary  digestion  must  be  a 
serious  evil,  and  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  amylolytic  fer- 
ment of  the  pancreatic  juice  is  closely  akin  to,  if  not  identical 


224  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

with,  the  ferment  of  the  saliva,  and  hence  is  susceptible  to  the 
same  influences  that  affect  the  salivary  ferment. 

Methods  employed. 

In  testing  the  influence  of  alcoholic  liquors  on  the  salivary 
digestion  of  starchy  foods,  the  following  method  was  most 
generally  employed  :  Ten  c.  c.  of  a  freshly  prepared  starch- 
paste  (one  per  cent.)  were  introduced  into  a  suitable  flask,  a 
given  volume  of  the  alcoholic  fluid  together  with  sufficient 
water  to  make  the  resultant  mixture  up  to  90  c.  c,  added,  and 
lastly,  10  c.  0.  of  neutralized  and  filtered  saliva,  which  had 
been  previously  diluted  to  some  definite  volume.  The  com- 
pleted mixture  was  thus  composed  of  100  c.  c.  The  time  at 
which  the  saliva  was  added  was  carefully  noted,  and  the  mix- 
ture placed  in  a  suitable  water-bath  kept  at  38°-40°  C.  In 
order  to  measure  the  rate  of  digestion  a  drop  of  fluid  was 
withdrawn  at  intervals,  placed  on  a  white  porcelain  surface,  and 
tested  with  a  drop  of  a  dilute  iodine  solution.  The  color  ob- 
tained with  iodine  under  these  conditions  is  dependent  upon  the 
extent  of  amylolytic  action.  Thus,  the  presence  of  soluble 
starch,  the  first  product  formed,  is  indicated  by  a  blue  color. 
As  digestion  proceeds,  the  blue  color  gives  place  to  a  reddish 
color  with  iodine,  owing  to  the  presence  of  erythrodextrin,  while 
the  final  products  of  amylolytic  action,  maltose  and  achroodex- 
trins,  give  no  color  whatever  with  iodine.  The  time  when  this 
so-called  "achromic"  point  is  reached  is  carefully  noted,  and 
the  number  of  minutes  required  for  the  appearance  of  the 
"  achromic  "  point  serves  as  a  measure  of  the  rate  of  amylolytic 
action. 

A  method  less  frequently  used  in  our  experiments,  but  better 
adapted  to  measuring  accurately  small  shades  of  difference,  was 
as  follows :  One  gram  of  arrowroot  starch  was  made  into  a 
paste  with  40  c.  c.  of  water,  50  c.  c.  of  water  alone  (in  the  con- 
trol) or  with  the  required  volume  of  alcoholic  fluid  to  give  the 
desired  percentage  were  then  added,  and  lastly,  10  c.  c.  of  a 
diluted  neutral  saliva.  The  mixture,  or  series  of  mixtures,  was 
then  placed  in  a  bath  at  38°-40°  C.  for  thirty  minutes,  after 
which  the  solution  was  heated  to  boiling  to  prevent  further 
action  of  the  enzyme.  The  resultant  solution  was  then  made 
up  to  150  c.  c.,  and  the  extent  of  amylolytic  action  ascertained 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  225 

by  determining  in  one  sixth  of  the  sohition  the  amount  of 
maltose  formed  by  the  use  of  Allihn's  >  gravimetric  method. 
From  the  amount  of  reduced  copper  thus  obtained,  the  amount 
of  maltose  was  calculated  on  the  basis  of  Salomon's  ^  statement 
that  100  parts  of  anhydrous  maltose  will  form  Hi  parts  of 
reduced  copper  when  boiled  with  Fehling's  solution  after  the 
Allihn  method. 

It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  in  both  methods  all  of  the 
mixtures  belonging  to  a  given  series  were  treated  with  the  same 
specimen  of  saliva. 

Absolute  Alcohol  (99.5  to  100  Per  Cent.). 

Experiment  116.     (Saliva  1  :  15.)  ' 
Alcohol.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent 7  minutes. 

0.5      "  7       " 

1.0      "  7       " 

2.0      "  7       " 

5.0      «  7       « 

10.0      "  7       « 

Experiment  117.     (Saliva  1  :  20.) 
Alcohol.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point 

0  per  cent 7  minutes. 

1  "  7       " 

10      "  7       " 

Experiment  118.     (Saliva  1  :  30.) 
Alcohol.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent 27  minutes. 

0.5       "  27       « 

1.0       "  27       « 

2.0       "  27       " 

5.0       «  27       " 

10.0       "  25       " 

From  these  results  it  is  plainly  manifest  that  absolute  alcohol 
has  very  little  influence  upon  the  amylolytic  or  starch-digesting 

'  Zeitsch.  f.  Analyt.  Chemie,  xxii.  448. 

"  Journal  fur  Praktische  Chemie,  xxviii.  109. 

'  Being  the  dilution  of  the  saliva  added  to  the  digesting  mixture  ;  i.  e., 
one  part  of  fresh  saliva  in  fifteen  parts  of  water.  It  is  to  be  remembered, 
however,  that  in  the  digestive  mixtures  (100  c.  c.)  the  dilution  of  the  saliva 
is  increased  tenfold. 


226 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


power  of  neutral  saliva.  Only  when  the  saliva,  added  to  the 
digestive  mixture,  is  diluted  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  30  does 
the  presence  of  even  ten  per  cent,  of  alcohol  have  any  measur- 
able influence,  and  then  only  to  retard  the  appearance  of  the 
achromic  point  two  minutes.  As  this  percentage  of  absolute 
alcohol  is  equal  to  at  least  twenty  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit,  it 
follows  that  pure  alcohol  free  from  admixture  is  practically 
without  influence  upon  the  digestion  of  farinaceous  foods  by  the 
saliva. 

A  more  accurate  testing  of  this  question  was  attempted  by 
the  use  of  the  second  method  above  described,  with  the  follow- 
ing results :  — 


Experiment  119. 

(Saliva  1 : 4.) 

Alcohol. 

Keduced  copper 
iui. 

Maltose 
formed. 

Relative  amylolytic 
actiou. 

0  per  cent. 

0.0885  gram. 

31.05  per  cent.' 

100.0 

0.5      « 

0.0918     " 

32.21      " 

103.7 

1.0      " 

0.0908     " 

31.86      " 

102.6 

3.0      " 

0.0911     " 

31.96      " 

102.9 

5.0      " 

0.0897     " 

31.47      " 

101.3 

0.0      " 

0.0862     " 

30.25      " 

97.4 

Experiment  120. 

(Saliva  1:5.) 

Alcohol. 

Reduced  copper 
mi. 

Maltose 
formed. 

Relative  amylolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.1436  gram. 

75.5  per  cent. 

100.0 

5      " 

0.1439     " 

75.7      " 

100.2 

10      " 

0.1367     " 

71.9      " 

95.2 

15      " 

0.1309     " 

68.0      " 

90.0 

Experiment  121. 

(Saliva  1  : 4.) 

Alcohol. 

Reduced  copper 

Maltose 
formed. 

Relative  amylolytic 
actiou. 

0  per  cent. 

0.122  gram. 

64.2  per  cent. 

100.0 

5       " 

0.120     « 

63.1       " 

98.2 

10      " 

0.119     " 

62.5      " 

97.3 

15 


93.4 


Experiment  122.     (Saliva  1 : 2.) 


Alcohol. 

Reduced  copper 
in  J. 

Maltose 
formed. 

Relative  amylolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.132  gram. 

69.4  per  cent. 

100.0 

5      « 

0.131     " 

68.9      « 

99.2 

10      « 

0.126     " 

66.3      " 

95.3 

15      " 

0.125     " 

65.7      " 

94.6 

'  Calculated  on  the  one  gram  of  starch  employed. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  227 

At  first  glance  these  results  would  seem  to  be  somewhat 
opposed  to  those  obtained  in  the  first  series  of  experiments,  but 
such  is  not  the  case.  The  first  method  simply  tells  us  the  time 
when  all  the  starch  has  been  transformed  into  achroodextrin 
and  maltose.  The  second  method,  however,  tells  us  more  than 
this,  viz.,  the  actual  amount  of  maltose  that  has  been  formed, 
and,  as  a  certain  amount  of  achroodextrin  can  be  transformed 
into  maltose  by  the  continued  action  of  the  salivary  ferment,  it 
follows  that  this  latter  method  gives  us  a  clearer  knowledge  of 
the  influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  secondary  action  of  the  amylo- 
lytic  enzyme.  Thus,  we  find  that  small  amounts  of  absolute 
alcohol  may  actually  cause  an  increased  formation  of  maltose. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  presence  of  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent,  of 
absolute  alcohol  leads  to  a  distinct  retardation  in  the  formation 
of  sugar,  although  the  inhibition  is  not  very  pronounced  con- 
sidering the  amount  of  alcohol  j)resent.  This  retardation  of 
the  secondary  action  of  the  ferment  is  perhaps  suggested  by 
the  slight  delay  in  the  appearance  of  the  achromic  point  in 
Experiment  118,  in  the  presence  of  ten  per  cent,  of  absolute 
alcohol. 

Whiskey  (with  50  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol). 
Experiment  123.     (Saliva  1  :  30.) 

Whiskey.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent 28  minutes. 

0.5       "  22  hours. 

1.0       "  no  action  beyond  erythrodextrin.i 

2.0       "  no  action  whatever.^ 

5.0      "  

Experiment  124.  (Saliva  1  :  25.) 
Whiskey.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent 6  minutes. 

0.5       "  8 

1.0       "  17  hours. 

2.0      "  no  action  beyond  soluble  starch. 

5.0      "  no  action  at  all. 

AbBOlute  alcohol. 

2.5  per  cent 6  minutes. 

>  The  final  observation  was  always  made  at  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours. 
2  Ibid. 


228  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Experiment  125.  (Saliva  1  :  20.) 
Whiskey.  Appearance  of  the  achromlc  point. 

0  per  cent 7  minutes. 

0.5       "  8       " 

1.0      "  9       " 

2.0      "  no  action  beyond  erythrodextrin. 

5.0      "  no  action  whatever. 

Absolute  alcohol. 

2.5  per  cent 7  minutes. 

Experiment  126.     (Saliva  1  :  15.) 
Whiskey.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent 5  minutes. 

0.5       "  5       " 

1.0       "  7       " 

2.0       "  24  hours. 

5.0       "  no  action  whatever. 

Absolute  alcohol. 

2.5        "  5  minutes. 

Experiment  127.  (Saliva  1  :  7.) 
Whiskey.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent 3  minutes. 

2       «  5       " 

5        "  no  action  beyond  erythrodextrin. 

10       "  no  action  whatever. 

Absolute  alcohol. 

5  per  cent 3  minutes. 

Experiment  128.     (Saliva  1  :  3.) 
Whiskey.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent 3  minutes. 

5      "  4      " 

10       "  24  hours. 

Absolute  alcohol. 

5  per  cent 3  minutes. 

Experiment  129.     (Saliva  1  :  4.) 

^^.  .„,  Reduced  copper  Maltose  Relative  amylolytic 

^'""''^5'-  in  J.  formed.  action. 

0  per  cent.  0.109  gram.  57.3  per  cent.  100.0 

5      «  0.110  >    "  57.8      "  100.8 

10      "  0.080     "  42.0      "  73.3 

15      "  0.010     "  5.2      "  9.0 

From  these  results  it  is  apparent  that  whiskey  may  have  a 
very  great  retarding  action  upon  salivary  digestion,  the  retarda- 

'  Allowance  being  made  for  the  reduction  obtained  from  a  corresponding 
amount  of  the  whiskey  alone. 


DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION.  229 

tion  being  the  more  pronounced  the  greater  the  cliUition  of  the 
saliva.  When,  however,  the  saliva  is  diluted  only  three  or  four 
times,  so  that  the  proportion  of  saliva  in  the  digestive  mixture 
is  as  1 :  30  or  1 :  40,  then  the  presence  of  even  five  per  cent,  of 
whiskey  is  wholly  without  action.  It  is  furthermore  apparent 
that  the  alcohol  of  the  whiskey  plays  no  part  in  this  inhibitory 
action.  What  now  is  the  cause  of  the  retardation?  In  this 
connection  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  all  the  whiskeys  examined 
by  us  have  shown  an  acid  reaction  ;  furthermore,  the  saliva  used 
in  our  experiments  was  neutralized  saliva.  Taking  into  con- 
sideration the  well-known  sensitiveness  of  the  salivary  ferment 
toward  acids,  the  question  naturally  presents  itself  whether  this 
retardation  of  amyloly tic  action  caused  by  the  whiskey  is  not 
due  to  the  acidity  of  the  fluid.  This  question  we  attempted  to 
answer  by  the  following  experiments  :  — 

Experiment  130.     (Saliva  1  :  15.) 
Fluid  added.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent.  4  minutes. 

2.0       "         whiskey  24  hours. 

2.0       "  "  neutralized  7  minutes. 

1.0      "        absolute  alcohol  4       " 

Experiment  131.     (Saliva  1  :  25.) 


Fluid  added. 

0  per  cent. 

1  "        whiskey 

1      "            "        neutralized 

Appea: 

ranee  of  the  achromic  point. 
9  minutes. 
24  hours. 
22  minutes. 

5 

«            « 

no  action. 

5 
10 
2.5 

"             "         neutralized 
"         absolute  alcohol 

partial  action. 
11  minutes. 

From  these  results  it  is  apparent  that  the  retarding  action  of 
the  whiskey  is  in  great  part  overcome  by  neutralization  of  the 
liquor,  providing  the  saliva  is  not  too  greatly  diluted-  It  is 
furthermore  apparent  that  with  unneutralized  saliva  —  i.  e.,  with 
the  normally  alkaline  secretion  —  the  retarding  action  of  at 
least  small  quantities  of  whiskey  would  be  far  less  than  is  indi- 
cated by  the  above  results.  Indeed,  it  may  be  safely  said  that 
with  a  fair  volume  of  unneutralized  and  not  too  greatly  diluted 
saliva  the  presence  of  even  five  per  cent,  of  whiskey  would  be 
practically  without  action  on  the  salivary  digestion  of  farina- 


230  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

ceous  foods,  a  conclusion  which  Roberts  has  likewise  reached. 
Obviously,  however,  the  degree  of  acidity  of  a  given  sample  of 
whiskey,  together  with  the  natural  alkalinity  of  the  saliva, 
would  be  important  factors  in  determining  the  precise  character 
of  the  result. 

In  this  connection  the  question  may  properly  be  asked  why 
we  employed  neutralized  saliva  in  our  experiments  instead  of 
the  normally  alkaline  fluid  ?  To  this  we  would  answer  that  in 
no  other  way  was  it  possible  to  obtain  constant  and  comparable 
conditions,  since  the  alkalinity  of  the  secretion  is  ever  variable, 
and,  moreover,  every  variation  in  the  dilution  of  the  fluid  would 
obviously  cause  a  corresponding  variation  in  the  degree  of  alka- 
linity. Further,  the  best  action  of  saliva  is  normally  obtained 
when  the  fluid  is  neutral,  and  the  natural  tendency  of  the  food- 
stuffs is  toward  neutralization  of  the  secretion,  both  in  the 
mouth  and  in  the  stomach.  Again,  since  the  fluids  we  were 
testing  all  have  an  acid  reaction,  it  seemed  more  probable  that 
we  should  obtain  a  trustworthy  indication  of  the  action  of  these 
fluids  upon  the  amylolytic  ferment  by  using  a  neutral  solution 
of  the  enzyme. 

In  conclusion,  then,  we  may  repeat  that  the  retardation  of 
amylolytic  action  caused  by  large  amounts  of  whiskey  is  not 
closely  connected  with  the  amount  of  alcohol  the  liquor  con- 
tains, but  is  more  intimately  associated  with  the  presence  of 
volatile,  acid-reacting  bodies,  possibly  also  ethereal  bodies, 
volatile  oils,  and  perhaps  also  tannin.  Hence,  the  greater  the 
purity  of  the  whiskey,  the  less  will  be  its  retarding  action  upon 
the  digestion  of  the  farinaceous  food-stuffs. 

That  the  solid,  non-volatile  portions  of  the  whiskey  that  we 
experimented  with  have  no  retarding  action  upon  the  amylolytic 
power  of  the  saliva  is  shown  by  the  following  experiment  made 
with  the  residue  left  on  evaporation  of  the  whiskey,  —  an  experi- 
ment which  also  shows  that  the  acid-reacting  bodies  present  in 
the  whiskey  are  volatilized  by  heat :  — 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 
Experiment  132.     (Saliva  1  :  4.) 


Whiskey 

residue.^ 

Reduced  copper 
in  J. 

Maltose 
formed. 

Relative  amylolytto 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.091  gram.2 

47.8  per  cent. 

100.0 

6      " 

0.115     " 

60.4 

126.3 

10      « 

0.113     " 

69.4 

124.2 

15      " 

0.103     « 

54.1 

113.1 

So  far  as  these  results  go,  they  indicate  that  the  solid  matter 
present  in  this  sample  of  whiskey,  when  free  from  alcohol  and 
the  volatile  acid-reacting  bodies,  has  a  marked  stimulating  ac- 
tion upon  salivary  digestion.  Whether  this  result  may  be  ex- 
pected from  all  whiskeys  is,  of  course,  uncertain. 

Influence  of  the  So-called  Fusel  Oils  upon  the  Amylolytic  Action 
of  Saliva. 

Since  the  preceding  results  obtained  with  whiskey  indicate 
that  the  retarding  action  of  this  liquor  upon  salivary  digestion 
is  mainly  associated  with  volatile  matters  other  than  ethyl  alco- 
hol, we  have  tried  a  few  experiments  ■^  with  the  alcohols  liable 
to  be  present  in  the  so-called  fusel  oils  with  a  view  to  ascertain- 
ing their  influence  upon  the  amylolytic  action  of  the  salivary 
ferment.  As  already  stated,  we  have  very  little  personal  know- 
ledge concerning  the  presence  of  fusel  oil  in  the  distilled  liquors 
of  the  whiskey  type.  Such  tests  as  we  have  made  in  this  di- 
rection have  either  given  negative  results  or  else  have  shown 
the  presence  of  these  oils  in  very  small  amounts  only.  Still, 
as  they  are  generally  considered  as  impurities  common  to  low- 
grade  liquors,  it  is  desirable  to  know  something  concerning  the 
action  of  the  alcohols  present  in  them. 


Amyl  Alcohol. 

Experiment  133. 

(Saliva  1  :  4.) 

Amyl 

Reduced  copper 

Maltose 

Relative  amylolytic 

alcohol. 

in  J. 

formed. 

action. 

per  cent. 

0.1208  gram. 

42.3  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.1209     " 

42.4 

100.2 

"' 

0.1215     " 

42.6 

100.7 

0.1234     " 

43.2 

102.1 

0.1190     " 

41.7 

98.5 

0.1130     " 

39.7 

93.8 

0.05 

0.10 

0.25 

0.50 

1.00 

^  The  residue  dissolved  in  water.  The  percentages  refer  to  the  residue 
obtained  from  those  percentages  of  whiskey. 

-  Deduction  being  made  for  the  reducing  power  of  the  residue  itself. 

8  These  experiments  were  carried  out  in  our  laboratory  by  Philip  Dowell, 
B.  A.,  Ph.  B. 


232 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Isobutyl 

Alcohol. 

Experiment  134. 

(Saliva  1  :  4.) 

Isobutyl 
alcohol. 

Reduced  copper 
in  J. 

Maltose 
formed. 

Relative  amylolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.1137  gram. 

39.8  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.05       " 

0.1122     " 

39.3 

98.7 

0.10       " 

0.1139     " 

39.9 

100.2 

0.25       « 

0.1152     " 

40.4 

101.5 

0.50       " 

0.1119     " 

39.2 

98.4 

1.00       " 

0.1161     " 

40.7 

102.2 

Propyl  Alcohol. 
Experiment  135.     (Saliva  1  :  4.) 


Propyl 
alcohol. 

Reduced  copper 
ini. 

Maltose 
formed. 

Relative  amylolytic 
action. 

0 

per  cent. 

— 

— 

1 

0.05 

" 

0.1238  gram. 

43.4  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.10 

" 

0.1197     " 

42.0 

96.7 

0.25 

« 

0.1288     " 

45.1 

103.9 

0.50 

" 

0.1343     " 

47.0 

108.2 

1.00 

0.1254     " 

Methyl 
Experiment  136. 

44.0 

Alcohol. 
(SaUva  1  :  4.) 

101.3 

Methyl 
alcohol. 

Reduced  copper 

Maltose 
formed. 

Relative  amylolytic 
action. 

0 

per  cent. 

0.0988  gram. 

34.6  per  cent. 

100.0 

0.25 

0.1005     " 

35.2 

101.7 

0.50 

0.1040     " 

36.4 

105.2 

1.00 

0.1130     " 

39.6 

114.4 

2.00 

0.1042     " 

36.5 

105.4 

5.00 

0.1067     " 

37.4 

108.0 

These  results  make  it  clear  that,  if  whiskey  or  other  distilled 
liquor  should  be  contaminated  with  the  above  alcohols,  their 
presence  in  any  ordinary  amount  would  not  be  prejudicial  to 
salivary  digestion.  In  fact,  with  the  exception  of  amyl  alcohol, 
these  bodies,  even  in  the  largest  percentages  employed,  tend  to 
increase  the  amylolytic  action  of  the  saliva  considerably  above 
that  of  the  control  mixture.  Physiologically,  'this  fact  is  of 
considerable  interest,  although  it  does  not  help  explain  the 
cause  of  the  retardation  in  amylolji;ic  action  produced  by  whis- 
key, brandy,  and  the  other  liquors  of  this  class. 

'  This  result  was  lost  through  an  accident,  and  consequently  the  action 
of  the  various  percentages  of  alcohol  must  be  compared  with  the  action  of 
the  lowest  percentage. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  233 

Brandy  (with  48  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol). 
Experimeut  137.     (Saliva  1  :  20.) 
Brandy.  Appearance  ot  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent 5  miuutes. 

0.5        "        7       " 

1.0        "        12       " 

2.0        "        17  hours. 

K(\„  J  10  action  beyond  soluble  starch 

(      and  erythrodextrin. 
10.0        "        no  action  whatever. 

Absolute  alcohol. 

5.0  per  cent 7  minutes. 

Experiment  138.     (Saliva  1 :  4.) 

T,       ,  Reduced  copper  Maltose  Relative  amylolytic 

^'•""'y-  in  J.  formed.  action. 

0  per  cent.  0.113  gram.^  59.4  per  cent.  100.0 

5      "  0.117      "  61.5       "  103.5 

10      "  0.087      "  45.7       "  76.9 

15      "  0.051      "  26.8       "  45.1 

As  with  whiskey,  brandy  is  wholly  without  deleterious  action 
on  salivary  digestion  when  the  saliva  is  not  too  greatly  diluted 
and  the  brandy  not  present  in  quantities  larger  than  five  per 
cent.  With  saliva  greatly  diluted,  on  the  other  hand,  even  one 
per  cent,  of  brandy  is  sufficient  to  cause  retardation  of  amylo- 
lytic  action.  The  alcohol  of  the  brandy  is  in  nowise  respon- 
sible for  the  inhibitory  action. 

Experiment  139.     (Saliva  1  :  20.) 

Fluid  added.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent.  7  minutes. 

1  "        brandy  12        " 
1       "            "        neutralized  7        " 

5       "  "  no  action  beyond  erythrodextrin. 

5       "  "  "  16  hours. 

2.6      "        absolute  alcohol  7  minutes. 

Experiment  140.  (Saliva  1 :  5.) 
Fluid  added.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent.  2  minutes. 

5      "  brandy  12         " 

5      "  "        neutralized  2         " 

10      «  "  "  2        " 

5       "         absolute  alcohol  2         " 

'  With  due  allowance  for  such  reducing  action  as  the  brandy  itself  pos- 
sesses. 


234 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Evidently,  such  retarding  action  as  the  brandy  possesses  is 
mainly  connected  with  the  acidity  of  the  fluid,  since  on  neutrali- 
zation of  the  liquor  its  inhibitory  action  is  greatly  diminished 
or  even  entirely  overcome.  The  following  experiment  shows 
that,  as  with  whiskey,  the  non-volatile  matter  present  in  the 
liquor  is  not  responsible  for  the  retardation  of  amylolytic  action, 
but  has  by  itself  a  stimulating  effect  on  amylolysis  :  — 

Experiment  141.     (Saliva  1  :  4.) 


Brandy 

residue. 

Reduced  copper 
in  J. 

Maltose 
formed. 

Relative  amylolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.113  gram.i 

59.4  per  cent. 

100.0 

5      " 

0.124      " 

65.2      « 

109.7 

10      " 

0.116      " 

61.0      " 

102.7 

15      " 

0.104      " 

54.7      « 

92.0 

Rum  (with  51  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol). 
Experiment  142.     (Saliva  1  :  20.) 

Rum.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent 11  minutes. 


0.5       " 

.     35        " 

1.0       " 

.     1.7  hours. 

2.0 

.     24       " 

5.0       " 

no  action  bevond  sol"t'>l'^  sffl.rpli. 

10.0 

.     no  action  whatever 

Absolute  alcoho! 

5.0  per  cent. 

.     11  minutes. 

Experiment 

143. 

(Saliva  1  :  4.) 

Rum. 

Reduced  copper 

Maltose 
formed. 

Relative  amylolytic 
action. 

0  per  cent. 

0.112  gram.'' 

58.9  per  cent. 

100.0 

5      " 

0.057 

« 

30.0      " 

50.8 

10      " 

0.014 

" 

7.3      " 

12.3 

15      " 

0.005 

" 

trace. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  from  these  experiments  that  rum  has  a  far 
greater  retarding  action  on  amylolysis  than  whiskey  or  brandy, 
even  when  the  saliva  is  fairly  concentrated.  Further,  the  alco- 
hol contained  in  the  above  percentage  of  brandy  is  entirely 
without  influence  on  amylolytic  action.  This  marked  retarding 
action  of  rum  is  due  mainly  to  volatile  acid-reacting  substances, 

'  With  deduction  for  the  reducing  action  of  the  sugar  present  in  the 
brandy. 

2  Making  allowance  for  the  reducing  action  of  the  rum  itself. 


DIGESTION   AND  SECRETION.  235 

presumably  of  the  same  nature  as  those  present  in  whiskey  and 
brandy,  but  present  in  larger  amount.  All  samples  of  rum  that 
we  have  examined  have  shown  a  decided  acid  reaction,  consider- 
ably greater  than  we  have  found  in  whiskey  or  brandy,  and  to 
this  we  attribute  the  greater  retarding  action  of  this  liquor. 
The  following  experiments  attest  the  proof  of  this  statement :  — 

Experiment  144.     (Saliva  1  :  20.) 


Fluid  added. 

0  per  cent. 

1  "        rum 

1       "  "     neutralized 

5      " 
5      « 

2.5       "        absolute  alcohol 


Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 
7  minutes. 
3  hours. 
7  minutes. 

no  action  beyond  erythrodextrin. 
7  minutes. 
7       " 


Experiment  145. 

Fluid  added. 

0  per  cent. 

5       "         rum 
10       " 
10       "  "     neutralized 

5       "         absolute  alcohol 


(Saliva  1  :  10.) 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 
3  minutes. 
16  hours. 

no  action  beyond  erythrodextrin. 
3  miuutes. 
3       " 


Thus,  simple  neutralization  of  the  acidity  of  the  rum  is  all 
that  is  needed  to  overcome  wholly  the  retarding  action  of  this 
fluid  on  salivary  digestion.  Further,  the  following  experiment 
made  with  the  residue  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  rum 
shows  that  this  acidity  is  due  to  something  volatilized  by  heat, 
since  no  trace  of  its  action  is  to  be  found  in  the  residue  :  — 


Experiment  146.     (Saliva  1  :  4.) 


0  per  cent. 

5  " 
10  " 
15      « 


Reduced  copper 

in  J. 
0.119  gram.i 
0.119      " 
0.119      " 
0.116      " 


Maltose 

formed. 
62.5  per  cent. 
62.5 
62.5 
60.7       " 


Relative  amylolytic 
action. 

100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
97.1 


We  may  summarize  our  results  with  these  strong  alcoholic 
beverages  as  follows :  Whiskey  and  brandy  used  dietetically, 
say  to  the  extent  of  five  per  cent,  in  a  digesting  mixture,  have 
no  retarding  influence  upon  the  salivary  digestion  of  farinaceous 
foods,  providing  the  saliva  is  not  too  greatly  diluted.     When 

1  Allowance  being  made  for  the  reducing  action  of  the  residue  itself. 


236  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

present  in  larger  quantities  they  exert  a  retarding  action  upon 
amylolysis  which  is  out  of  all  proj>ortion  to  the  contained  alco- 
hol. The  inhibitory  effect  appears  to  be  connected  in  part,  and 
perhaps  mainly,  with  acid-reacting  substances  more  or  less  vola- 
tile or  destructible  in  nature.  Rum  differs  from  the  two  pre- 
ceding liquors  in  that  it  has  a  more  marked  retarding  action,  — 
an  action  dependent  chiefly  upon  the  presence  in  larger  quantity 
of  these  acid  substances,  and  not  connected  with  the  amount  of 
alcohol  present. 

Action  of  Wines. 
Our  study  of  the  influence  of  wines  on  the  salivary  digestion 
of  farinaceous  foods  shows  that  these  fluids  are  extremely 
potent  in  checking  the  action  of  the  salivary  ferment.  Further, 
this  action  is  entirely  unconnected  with  the  alcohol  present  in 
the  wines,  but  is  dependent  almost  wholly  upon  their  acid 
character.  Indeed,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  as  a  rule  the  retarding 
action  of  wines  on  amylolysis  is  practically  proportional  to  the 
acidity  of  the  fluid.  On  neutralization  of  these  acid  wines  their 
retarding  action  on  salivary  digestion  at  once  disappears,  as  the 
following  experiments  show :  — 

Sherry  (with  21  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol  and  4.7  Per  Cent,  of  Solid 
Matter). 

Experiment  147.     (Saliva  1  :  10.) 

Sherry.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent.  2  minutes. 

0.5       "  17  hours. 

1.0       "  no  action  beyond  erythrodextrin. 

2.0       "  no  action  beyond  soluble  starch. 

5.0       "  no  action  whatever. 
Absolute  alcohol. 

1.0  per  cent.  2  minutes. 

Experiment  148.     (Saliva  1  :  5.) 
Fluid  added.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent.  1  minute. 


sherry  16  hours. 

"      neutralized  1  minute. 


no  action  beyond  erythrodextrin. 

1  minute. 
no  action  whatever. 

1  minute. 


DIGESTION   AND   SECRETION. 


237 


Claret  (with  10  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol  and  3.3  Per  Cent,  of  Solid 
Matter). 
Experiment  149.     (Saliva  1  :  15.) 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 


0  per  cent. 

7  minutes. 

0.5      " 

no  action  beyond  erythrodextr 

,  1.0      « 

no  action  whatever. 

2.0      « 

C(                      « 

5.0      " 

II                II 

10.0      " 

«                 <i 

Absolute  alcohol. 

1.0  per  cent. 

7  minutes. 

Experiment  150 

(Saliva  1  :  10.) 

Claret. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent. 

2  minutes. 

0.5      " 

erythrodextrin  stage. 

1.0      " 

soluble  starch  only. 

2.0      " 
5.0      « 
Absolute  alcohol. 

no  action  whatever. 

0.5  per  cent. 

2  minutes. 

Experiment  151 

.     (Saliva  1  :  15.) 

Fluid  added 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent 

3  minutes. 

1        " 

claret 

soluble  starch  only. 

1        " 

"     neutralized 

3  minutes. 

5       " 

" 

no  action  whatever. 

5       " 

«             " 

3  minutes. 

0.3       " 

absolute  alcohol 

3        " 

Experiment  152.     (Saliva  1  :  3.) 

Fluid  added. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent. 

1  minute. 

1 

claret 

4|  hours. 

2       « 

« 

no  action  beyond  erythrodextrin 

5 

" 

no  action  whatever. 

5       " 

"     neutralized 

1  minute. 

Hochheimer  (with  11  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol  and  1.8  Per  Cent,  of 
Solid  Matter). 


Experiment 

153 

.     (Saliva  1  :  20.) 

Hochheimer. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent. 

8  minutes. 

0.5       " 

erythrodextrin  stage. 

1.0       " 

soluble  starch. 

2.0       " 

no  action  whatever. 

5.0       " 
10.0       " 

II              II 

Absolute  alcohol. 

1.0  per  cent. 

8  minutes. 

238 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Experiment  154.     (Saliva  1  :  15.) 


Hochheimer, 

0  per  cent. 

0.5       " 

1.0       " 

2.0       " 

5.0       " 

10.0       " 

Absolute  alcohol. 

1.0  per  cent. 


Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 
6  minutes. 

erythrodextrin  stage, 
soluble  starch  only, 
no  action  whatevier. 


6  minutes. 


Hochheimer. 

0  per  cent. 
0.5       " 
1.0       " 
2.0        " 
5.0       " 


Experiment  155. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 


SaUva  1  :  10. 
3  minutes. 

erythrodextrin  and  sugar, 
no  action  beyond  erythrodextrin. 
soluble  starch, 
no  action  whatever. 


SaUva  1 :  6. 
2  minutes. 
16  hours. 
16      " 

erythrodextrin  only 
soluble  starch. 


Absolute  alcohol. 


1.0  per  cent.     3  minutes. 


2  minutes. 


Experiment  156.     (Saliva  1  :  15.) 


Fluid  added. 
0  per  cent. 


:  point. 


1 
1 

5 
5 

0.5 


hochheimer 

neutralized 


absolute  alcohol 


Appearance  of  the  achromic 
5  minutes. 

no  action  beyond  erythrodextrin. 
4  minutes, 
no  action  whatever. 
4  minutes. 
5 


Experiment  157.     (Saliva  1  :  3.) 


Fluid  added.  Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent.  1  minute. 

1  "     hochheimer  27  minutes. 

2  "  "  erythrodextrin  stage. 

5         "  "  soluble  starch  with  erythrodextrin. 

5         "  "     neutralized  1  minute. 

In  conclusion  we  may  quote  the  words  of  Sir  William  Rob- 
erts,-' whose  views  on  this  subject  are  in  close  harmony  with  our 
results :  "  Both  the  stronger  and  the  lighter  wines  show  a 
powerful  inhibitory  effect  on  salivary  digestion.  Even  so  small 
a  proportion  as  one  per  cent,  of  sherry  or  hock  was  found  to 
paralyze  saliva  almost  completely,  and  even  one  half  or  one 
quarter  of  this  proportion  delayed  the  achromic  point  appre- 
'  Digestion  and  Diet,  p.  117. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


239 


ciably.  Claret  and  port  wine  behaved  similarly.  The  inhibi- 
tory effect  of  wines  is  entirely  due  to  the  very  considerable 
degree  of  acidity  which  they  all  possess.  .  .  .  When  the  acidity 
of  wines  is  neutralized  they  lose  entirely  their  inhibitory  effect 
on  salivary  digestion." 

Action  of  Malt  Liquors. 
Under  the  head  of  malt  liquors  we  have  experimented  with 
essentially  the  same  beverages  as  were  described  under  gastric 
digestion,  ■viz.,   porter,   stout,   lager    beer,   and  ale,   the   same 
brands  likewise  being  employed. 

Porter. 
Experiment  158. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 


' 

Saliva  1  :  20.                                                           SaUva  1  :  10. 

0  per  cent. 

11  minutes.                                                 3  minutes. 

0.5       " 

79        "                                                      18        " 

1.0       " 

22  hours.                                                   74        " 

2.0       « 
5.0       « 

erythrodextrin  only.                             174        " 
soluble  starch  and  erythrodextrin.        25  hours. 

10.0       " 

Absolute  alcohol. 

soluble  starch  only.                               erythrodextrin  only. 

0.5  per  cent. 

11  minutes.                                                 3  minutes. 

Experiment  159.     (Saliva  1  :  10.) 

Porter.                                                     Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent.                                         3  minutes. 

1       " 

23       " 

1 

heated  i                        23       " 

2       " 

103       « 

2 

103       « 

Absolute  alcohol 

1. 

0.5  per  cent.                                        3       " 

Experiment  160. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 


0  per  cent. 
1 


neutralized 


Absolute  alcohol. 

0.5  per  cent. 


Saliva  1  :  10. 

2  minutes. 
15 

1  minute. 
65  minutes. 

1  minute. 

2  minutes. 


Saliva  1 :  15. 
4  minutes. 
28 
3 
225 
3 


'  Porter  which  had  been  previously  heated  with  an  inverted  condenser  in 
a  water-bath  for  two  hours.  The  carbonic  acid  is  thus  driven  off,  while  the 
alcohol  and  other  volatile  matters  condense  and  flow  back  into  the  fluid,  the 
volume  remaining  constant. 


240  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Experiment  161.     (Saliva  1  :  5.) 


Porter. 
0  per  cent. 
2 
5 

1  minute. 
3  minutes. 
31        " 

10 

10        "        neutralized. 

Absolute  alcohol. 

0.5  per  cent. 

195 

1  minute. 

1       « 

From  these  results  the  conclusion  is  plain  that  porter  retards 
the  salivary  digestion  of  farinaceous  foods  very  greatly,  but 
that  the  inhibition  is  due  entirely  to  the  acidity  of  the  fluid, 
and  not  to  the  contained  alcohol.  Further,  the  acidity  due  to 
the  dissolved  carbonic  acid  is  not  connected  with  the  inhibitory 
action,  since  the  fluid  freed  from  carbonic  acid  by  heat  pro- 
duces the  same  retardation  as  the  original  fluid.  It  is  likewise 
noticeable  that  porter  has  far  less  retarding  action  on  salivary 
digestion  than  corresponding  percentages  of  wine,  owing  pre- 
sumably to  the  smaller  content  of  acid-reacting  bodies.  Again, 
there  is  a  suggestion  in  the  case  of  neutralized  porter  (Experi- 
ment 160)  of  a  slight  stimulation  of  amylolytic  action,  due 
presumably  to  the  presence  of  the  various  extractives. 

Lager  Beer  {New  Haven  Key  Beer). 


Experiment 

162. 

(Saliva  1  :  25.) 

Beer. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent. 

15  minutes. 

0.5 

20       " 

1.0 

37       « 

2.0        " 

45       " 

5.0        " 

138       « 

10.0        " 

175       " 

Absolute  alcohol. 

0.5  per  cent. 

15       " 

Experiment 

163. 

(Saliva  1  :  20.) 

Beer. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent. 

9  minutes. 

5 

77       « 

10 

147       " 

15        " 

147       " 

20        " 

167       " 

DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


241 


Experiment  164.     (Saliva  1  :  25.) 


Beer. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point 

0  per  cent. 

18  minutes. 

1 

36        " 

1         "        heated ' 

20       " 

2 

54       " 

2 

36       « 

Absolute  alcohol. 

0.5  per  cent. 

18       " 

Experiment  165. 

(Saliva  1  :  25.) 

Beer. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent. 

24  minutes. 

1 

50       " 

1         "       heated  and  neutralized     10       " 

2 

65       " 

2        "                "                ' 

10       " 

5 

80       " 

5        " 

10       " 

From  these  results  it  is  seen  that  the  inhibitory  action  on 
salivary  digestion  of  this  sample  of  lager  beer  is  considerably 
less  than  that  of  porter.  Further,  as  in  porter,  such  retarda- 
tion as  the  beer  causes  is  due  wholly  to  the  acidity  of  the  fluid. 
Indeed,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  neutralized  beer  tends  to 
increase  very  decidedly  the  rate  of  amylolytic  action.  This  is 
so  marked  as  to  suggest  the  possibility  of  the  beer  itself  having 
an  amylolytic  action,  although  it  can  hardly  be  supposed  that 
any  amylolytic  ferment  present  in  the  beer  could  resist  the  de- 
structive action  of  the  heat  applied  to  the  fluid  before  it  was 
neutralized.  Careful  experiments,  however,  with  the  fresh 
beer  failed  to  show  any  amylolytic  action  on  the  part  of  the 
fluid  itself  ;  so  that  we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  the  beer 
possesses  a  twofold  action  on  amylolysis.  The  stronger  action 
due  to  the  acidity  of  the  fluid  is  a  retarding  one,  but  when  this 
is  overcome  by  neutralization  of  the  fluid,  then  the  second  ac- 
tion asserts  itself,  viz.,  a  stimulation  of  salivary  digestion  due 
to  some  of  the  extractive  matters  of  the  beer.  The  alcohol 
present  in  the  fluid  is  practically  without  action  on  the  solvent 
power  of  the  saliva  on  farinaceous  foods.  Unlike  the  experi- 
ments with  porter,  simply  heating  the  beer  (see  Experiment 
164^  on  a  water-bath  with  an  inverted  condenser,  so  as  to  drive 
'  Previously  heated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  porter  in  Experiment  159. 


242  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

off  the  contained  carbonic  acid,  tends  to  decrease  the  retarding 
action  of  the  beer.  This  fact  is  hardly  attributable  to  the  loss 
of  carbonic  acid,  certainly  not  wholly,  and  is  perhaps  due  to 
some  more  profound  change,  since  it  was  observed  that  the 
fluid  tended  to  change  its  appearance  with  formation  of  a  floc- 
culent  precipitate,  etc. 

Milwaukee  Lager  Beer  (^Pabsfs). 
Experiment  166.     (Saliva  1  :  25.) 


Beer. 

Appearance  of  the  achromia  point. 

0  per  cent 

10  minutes. 

0.5 

17        " 

1.0 

30       " 

2.0 

75       « 

5.0 

140       « 

10.0 

160       « 

Absolute  alcohol. 

0.5  per  cent. 

10       " 

Experiment 

167. 

(Saliva  1  :  25.) 

Beer. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent. 

10  minutes. 

1.0 

35       " 

1.0 

heated 

14       " 

2.0 

75       " 

2.0 

" 

35       " 

Absolute  alcohol. 

0.5  per  cent. 

10       « 

Experiment 

168 

(Saliva  1 :  25.) 

Beer. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent 

15  minutes. 

1 

22       " 

1 

leated  and  neutralized     10       " 

2 

50       " 

2 

" 

10       " 

5        « 

60       « 

5        « 

" 

10       « 

Experiment  169. 

Beer. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 
Saliva  1  :  25.               Saliva  1  :  15. 

0  per  cent 

15  minutes.         12  minutes. 

30 

180        "              105        " 

1  Previously  heated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  porter  and  beer  in  the 
preceding  experiments. 


DIGESTION   AND   SECRETION. 


The  above  results  are  practically  confirmatory  of  the  results 
obtained  with  New  Haven  beer,  and  we  may  derive  from  them 
the  same  conclusions  as  have  already  been  drawn  in  connection 
with  the  preceding  sample. 

Ale  (.Bass  &  Co.'s  Pale  Ale). 

Experiment  170. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 


Saliva  1 

:20. 

Saliva  1 :  15. 

Saliva  1  :  10. 

0  per  cent. 

9  minutes. 

5  minutes. 

2  minutes. 

0.5 

19       ' 

7        " 

3       " 

1.0 

43       ' 

25        " 

4       " 

2.0 

200 

75       " 

7       " 

5.0 

260       ' 

195       « 

46       « 

10.0 

320       ' 

255       " 

64       « 

Absolute  alcohol. 

0.5  per  cent. 

9       ' 

— 

— 

Experiment  171. 

(Saliva  1  :  15.) 

Ale. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent. 
1 

6  minutes. 
16       " 

heated ' 


Absolute  alcohoL 
0.5  per  cent. 


14 
54 

45 

6 


Experiment  172. 


Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 


' 

Saliva  1 

:15. 

Saliva  1  :  '20. 

0  per  cent, 

5  minutes. 

6  minutes. 

1 

19        " 

35       " 

1 

heated  and  neutralized 

3       " 

3       " 

2        " 

92       " 

140       « 

2        « 

■  <                 « 

3       " 

3       « 

5 

177       " 

245       " 

5 

Experiment 

3       " 
173. 

3       « 

Ale. 

Appearai 

ice  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent. 
30       " 


SaUva  1 :  15.  Saliva  1 ;  10. 

5  minutes.  3  minutes. 

295      «  115       " 


1  Ale  which  had  been  previously  heated  in  a  water-bath  with  inverted 
condenser,  more  especially  for  the  removal  of  the  carbonic  acid. 


244  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Stcnit  (  Guiness's  Extra  Stout,  Dublin). 

Experiment  174. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 


Stout.                  

Saliva  1  :  15. 

Sahva  1  :  10. 

Saliva  1  :  5. 

0  per  cent.      4  minutes. 

4  minutes. 

3  minutes. 

0.5       "             lOJ  hours. 

14      " 

— 

1.0      "            22      « 

4^  hours. 

5  minutes. 

2.0       "             erythrodextriu. 

erythrodextrin. 

20        " 

j  erythrodextrin  and 
^■^       "          \      soluble  starch. 

erythrodextrin  and  } 

6^  hours. 

soluble  starch.         y 

10.0       "             soluble  starch  only. 

soluble  starch  only. 

24       " 

Absolute  alcohol. 

0.5  per  cent.    4  minutes. 

— 

— 

1.0       "                     — 

— 

3  minutes. 

Experiment  175. 

(Saliva  1  :  10.) 

Stout. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent. 

3  minutes. 

1       " 

300       " 

1       "        heated 

161       " 

2       " 

20  hours. 

2       "             " 

20       " 

Absolute  alcohol. 

0.5  per  cent. 

3  minutes. 

Experiment  176. 

(Saliva  1  :  10.) 

Stout. 

Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 

0  per  cent. 

2  minutes. 

1       « 

83      " 

1       "        heated  and  neutralized             2       " 

2       " 

415      " 

2       "                 "                   « 

2      " 

Absolute  alcohol. 
0.5  per  cent. 


Stout. 


Experiment  177.     (Saliva  1  :  5.) 


Appearance  of  the  achromic  point. 
2  minutes. 
24  hours. 
2  minutes. 


0  per  cent. 
10       " 
10       "        heated  and  neutralized 

Absolute  alcohol. 
1.0  per  cent.  2       " 

Stout  differs  from  the  other  malt  liquors  examined  ovXy  in 
that  its  retarding  action  on  salivary  digestion  is  a  trifle  more 
pronounced,  due,  we  think,  solely  to  its  somewhat  greater 
acidity.  Acidity  is  the  keynote  to  the  cause  of  the  retarding 
action  of  malt  liquors  in  general  on  salivary  digestion.    Remove 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  245 

the  acidity  of  the  fluid  aud  we  remove  the  disturbing  factor ; 
indeed,  the  neutralized  malt  liquors  even  stimulate  digestion  in 
some  instances. 

Thus,  we  find  beer  and  ale  more  favorable  to  salivary  diges- 
tion than  porter  and  stout,  simply  because  the  former,  as  a  rule, 
contain  less  acid  than  the  latter.  In  our  experiments  we  found 
stout  to  have  an  acidity  two  and  even  three  times  that  of  or- 
dinary lager  beer,  and  twice  that  of  ale,  while  porter  had  an 
acidity  somewhat  less  than  that  of  stout,  but  twice  that  of  beer 
and  ale. 

For  example,  samples  of  the  above  malt  liquors  showed  the 
following  x-elative  acidity,  exjjressed  by  the  number  of  cubic 
centimetres  of  a  0.2  per  cent,  solution  of  KOH  i-equired  to 
neutralize  25  c.  c.  of  the  respective  fluids :  — 


25  c. 

c.  stout  required 

46.0  c. 

c.  alkali  solution. 

25 

"    porter      " 

34.0 

" 

25 

"    ale           " 

19.0 

"         "           " 

25 

"    beer         " 

10-17 

«         «           << 

Sir  William  Roberts,  who  has  also  made  a  study  of  this  mat- 
ter, says  :  "  Malt  liquors  were  found  to  hamper  salivary  diges- 
tion exactly  in  proportion  to  their  degree  of  acidit}^  Sound 
English  beers  have  not  nearly  so  much  acidity  as  wines,  and 
they  interfere  comparatively  little  with  the  digestion  of  starch  ; 
but  '  turned  '  beer  is  highly  inhibitory." 

In  concluding  this  chapter  of  our  work  we  may  again  em- 
phasize the  following  facts :  Alcohol,  even  when  present  in  con- 
siderable quantities,  has  no  marked  effect  upon  the  amylolytic 
or  starch-digesting  power  of  the  saliva.  Alcoholic  beverages, 
however,  do  have  a  retarding  action  upon  amylolysis,  the  extent 
of  retardation  varying  with  the  strength  of  the  saliva.  Ob- 
viously, the  retardation  cannot  be  attributed  to  the  alcohol 
present.  Our  results,  indeed,  show  that  the  detrimental  factor 
is,  in  most  cases,  the  acidity  of  the  fluid  ;  for  after  neutraliza- 
tion of  the  alcoholic  liquid  no  marked  embarrassment  of  amylo- 
lytic action  is  to  be  observed.  Occasionally,  as  with  whiskey, 
neutralization  of  the  fluid  is  not  followed  by  a  complete  with- 
drawal of  inhibitory  action ;  hence  in  this  ease  we  are  forced  to 
attribute  the  retarding  action  of  this  liquor  in  part  to  the 
presence  of  some  ethereal  compounds,  such  as  are  frequently 


216  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

found  in  small  quantity  in  the  stronger  alcoholic  liquors. 
Wines,  in  virtue  of  their  greater  acidity,  have  a  far  more 
pronounced  retarding  action  upon  salivary  digestion  than  the 
stronger  alcoholic  fluids,  and,  as  might  be  expected,  the  extent 
of  retardation  caused  by  a  given  wine  is  dependent  solely  upon 
its  degree  of  acidity.  Wines  which  have  been  neutralized  are 
practically  without  influence  upon  salivary  digestion. 

Malt  liquors,  likewise,  owe  such  retarding  action  as  they 
possess  mainly,  if  not  wholly,  to  the  presence  of  acid  or  of  acid- 
reacting  bodies.  Consequently,  we  may  conclude  that  the 
retardation  of  salivary  digestion  caused  by  ordinary  alcoholic 
drinks  is  in  character  similar  to  the  retardation  which  follows 
the  use  of  vinegar,  lemon  juice,  or  other  acid  fluids,  or  mixtures 
such  as  salads  highly  seasoned  with  vinegar,  etc.,  the  only  dif- 
ference being  that  the  latter  class  are  unquestionably  more 
vigorous  in  their  retarding  action  from  their  greater  degree  of 
acidity.  We  may,  indeed,  query  whether  under  normal  circum- 
stances in  the  body  the  retarding  action  of  all  these  fluids,  alco- 
holic or  otherwise,  is  quite  as  great  as  our  experiments  would  at 
first  glance  indicate.  It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  the  saliva 
is  ordinarily  alkaline,  the  degree  of  alkalinity  in  some  cases,  at 
least,  being  equal  to  0.08  per  cent,  of  sodium  carbonate.  With 
such  an  alkaline  fluid,  aided  perhaps  by  alkaline  food,  a  portion 
at  least  of  the  disturbing  acid  of  the  alcoholic  beverage,  espe- 
cially if  the  latter  is  not  imbibed  in  too  large  quantity,  may  be 
neutralized  and  thus  deterred  from  exercising  any  deleterious 
influence.  Further,  the  widespread  use  of  effervescent  table 
waters,  such  as  Apollinaris  water  and  others  charged  with  alka- 
line carbonates,  as  additions  to  wines  of  the  claret  and  hock 
type,  would  likewise  lead  to  a  diminution  of  the  danger  in  this 
direction.  On  the  other  hand,  the  acid  alcoholic  beverages, 
especially  the  sour  wines  and  other  liquors  with  iJronounced 
acid  reaction,  must  always  be  a  menace  to  the  thorough  and 
vigorous  digestion  of  farinaceous  foods  both  by  the  saliva  and 
pancreatic  juice,  provided  the  latter  is  exposed  to  their  influence. 
This,  obviously,  may  be  a  matter  of  little  moment  to  a  vigorous 
person  with  abundant  digestive  resources,  but  to  the  weak  and 
ailing  individual  with  scant  digestive  powers  it  may  be  a  matter 
of  vital  importance. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  247 

D.    SUIUMART. 

The  following  summary,  in  which  will  be  found  many  repeti- 
tious of  previous  statements,  will  suffice  to  make  clear  the 
general  tenor  of  our  results  :  — 

Pure  ethyl  alcohol,  the  active  agent  in  all  so-called  alcoholic 
liquors,  when  present  in  small  amount  —  say  one  or  two  per 
cent,  of  absolute  alcohol,  equal  approximately  to  two  to  four 
per  cent,  of  proof  spirit  —  has  little  or  no  action  upon  the 
digestive  power  of  the  gastric  juice.  There  is,  indeed,  a  slight 
tendency  for  such  amounts  of  alcohol  to  increase  somewhat  the 
proteolytic  power  of  the  enzyme  ;  in  other  words,  the  digestive 
power  on  proteid  foods  may  be  slightly  increased.  As  the  per- 
centage of  alcohol  is  raised,  retardation  or  inhibition  of  proteo- 
lytic action  becomes  pronounced,  although  not  very  marked 
until  the  digesting  mixture  contains  five  to  ten  per  cent,  or  more 
of  absolute  alcohol.  With  fifteen  to  eighteen  per  cent,  of  abso- 
lute alcohol,  digestive  action  may  be  reduced  one  quarter  or 
even  one  third.  Especially  important  is  the  fact  that  the 
extent  of  retardation  by  a  given  percentage  of  alcohol  varies 
greatly  with  the  strength  or  activity  of  the  gastric  juice  and 
with  the  digestibility  of  the  proteid  material.  Everything  else 
being  equal,  the  greater  the  strength  or  digestive  power  of  the 
gastric  juice  the  less  is  the  retardation,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  weaker  the  gastric  juice  the  greater  the  inhibitory 
action  of  a  given  amount  of  absolute  alcohol.  It  is,  therefore, 
impossible  to  make  a  general  specific  statement  regarding  the 
action  of  given  percentages  of  alcohol  under  all  conditions. 
Our  results  agree  essentially  with  those  obtained  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam Roberts,  who  found  that  in  the  presence  of  less  than  ten 
per  cent,  of  proof  spirit  (five  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol) 
there  was  no  appreciable  retardation  of  gastric  digestion. 
With  ten  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit  retardation  was  only  barely 
detectable,  while  with  twenty  per  cent,  retardation  was  quite 
distinct.  Beyond  this  point  the  inhibitory  effect  of  alcohol 
increased  rapidly. 

On  the  proteolytic  action  of  the  pancreatic  juice  absolute 
alcohol  exercises  a  more  marked  influence,  the  presence  of  even 
two  or  three  per  cent,  being  sufficient  to  produce  a  distinct 
retardation  of  digestive  action.     Still,  as  in  the  case  with  gas- 


248  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

trie  digestion,  the  exact  amount  of  retardation  is  greatly  depend- 
ent upon  the  digestive  power  of  the  pancreatic  fluid.  When  the 
amount  of  absohite  alcohol  present  in  the  digesting  mixture 
is  less  than  one  per  cent.,  the  inhibition  of  proteolytic  action  is 
very  slight,  provided  the  ferment  is  fairly  vigorous  in  its  action. 

On  the  digestion  of  farinaceous  foods  by  the  saliva  absolute 
alcohol  has  no  very  marked  influence.  With  active  saliva  not 
greatly  diluted  the  presence  of  even  five  per  cent,  of  absolute 
alcohol  may  lead  to  a  slight  increase  in  digestive  power.  Larger 
quantities  of  alcohol  cause  retardation  of  amylolytic  action,  but 
even  ten  per  cent,  of  absolute  alcohol  causes  only  a  slight  re- 
tardation. As  this  percentage  of  absolute  alcohol  is  equal  to  at 
least  twenty  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit,  it  follows  that  pure  alco- 
hol, free  from  admixture,  is  not  liable  to  interfere  materially 
with  the  digestion  of  starchy  foods  by  the  saliva  nor  presumably 
by  the  pancreatic  juice. 

Strong  alcoholic  beverages,  such  as  whiskey,  brandy,  rum, 
and  gin,  containing  ordinarily  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  absolute 
alcohol,  and  with  only  a  small  amount  of  solid  or  extractive 
matter,  have  an  action  upon  gastric  digestion  practically  pro- 
portional to  the  quantity  of  alcohol  present.  Thus,  with  a  vig- 
orous gastric  juice  the  presence  of  even  ten  per  cent,  of  whiskey 
results  simply  in  a  slight  retardation  of  digestive  action.  The 
same  is  true  of  brandy,  gin,  and  rum.  With  a  weak  gastric 
juice  the  retarding  action  is  much  greater.  When  digestive 
action  is  fairly  vigorous  the  presence  of  small  percentages  of 
whiskey  causes  practically  no  retardation  ;  indeed,  there  is  even 
a  slight  suggestion  of  increased  digestive  action  in  the  piresence 
of  three  per  cent,  of  whiskey,  much  the  same  as  was  observed 
in  the  experiments  with  absolute  alcohol.  In  the  presence  of 
twenty  per  cent,  of  whiskey,  on  the  other  hand,  digestive  activ- 
ity may  be  reduced  one  fourth,  and  when  the  gastric  juice  is 
very  weak  from  scarcity  of  the  active  ferment,  then  even  small 
amounts  of  whiskey  may  exercise  a  vei-y  marked  retarding 
effect  upon  the  digestive  process.  Such  retardation  of  gastric 
digestion  as  whiskey,  brandy,  gin,  and  rum  produce  is  connected 
mainly  with  the  presence  of  alcohol  or  other  volatile  matter 
contained  in  the  liquor,  the  solid  matter  present  in  the  fluid  not 
showing,  as  a  rule,  any  evidence  of  responsibility  for  the  inhib- 
itory action.     The  conclusion   is   obvious   that  pure  whiskey, 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  249 

brandy,  rum,  and  gin  are  no  more  deleterious  to  gastric  diges- 
tion than  corresponding  strengths  of  absolute  alcohol,  and, 
further,  that  in  the  healthy  individual  these  liquors  can  be  con- 
sidered to  impede  the  gastric  digestion  of  proteid  foods  only 
when  taken  immoderately  and  in  intoxicating  doses. 

With  i-eference  to  the  composition  of  whiskey  as  bearing 
upon  possible  variations  in  the  action  of  this  fluid  on  gastric 
digestion,  our  results  show  merely  a  variation  in  the  percentage 
of  alcohol  present,  suggestive  of  more  or  less  addition  of  water. 
The  few  results  obtained  by  us  in  this  direction  show  variations 
in  the  percentage  of  alcohol  ranging  from  thirty  to  fifty  per 
cent.  There  was  likewise  some  variation  in  the  quantity  of  tan- 
nin present,  but  in  no  case  was  the  amount  of  the  latter  large. 

As  to  so-called  fusel  oils,  our  results  show  that  the  higher 
alcohols,  supposedly  contained  in  such  oils  in  small  quantities, 
tend  to  increase  rather  than  decrease  the  proteolytic  action  of 
the  gastric  juice.  Thus,  methyl,  propyl,  isobutyl,  and  amyl 
alcohols  all  increase  somewhat  the  digestive  power  of  the  gas- 
tric juice  when  present  in  small  amount.  Large  quantities 
have  a  decided  inhibitory  action.  Plainly,  however,  if  these 
alcohols  are  common  imjiurities  in  whiskeys,  brandies,  and 
related  liquors,  they  do  not  exercise  any  deleterious  influence 
upon  the  proteolytic  action  of  the  gastric  juice. 

On  pancreatic  digestion  whiskey  is  quite  active.  The  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  pancreatic  ferment  to  this  form  of  alcoholic 
liquor  is  quite  marked.  Further,  the  retarding  action  of  a 
given  percentage  of  whiskey  is  greater  than  that  of  a  corre- 
sponding percentage  of  pure  alcohol,  thus  indicating  the  pre- 
sence of  an  additional  inhibitory  substance  which  is  apparently 
a  part  of  the  solid  matter  of  the  whiskey  and  is  undoubtedly 
connected  with  the  acidity  of  the  fluid.  Brandy  and  rum  have 
essentially  the  same  actiou  upon  pancreatic  digestion  as  whiskey. 
Both  retard  proteolysis  quite  noticeably,  and  with  both  fluids 
the  retardation  is  somewhat  greater  than  that  caused  by  a 
corresponding  strength  of  alcohol. 

The  higher  alcohols,  such  as  are  present  in  fusel  oils,  have  a 
somewhat  greater  inhibitory  action  upon  pancreatic  digestion, 
i.  e.,  trypsin-proteolysis,  than  ethyl  alcohol ;  but  when  it  is  re- 
membered that  these  alcohols  can  be  present  in  whiskey,  brandy, 
etc.,  only  in  very  small  quantities,  it  is  seen  that  they  can  exer- 


250  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

cise  very  little  influence  in  modifying  the  action  of  alcoholic 
liquoi's  upon  pancreatic  proteolysis. 

On  the  digestion  of  farinaceous  foods  by  the  saliva,  whiskey 
and  brandy  have  no  retarding  influence  when  present  to  the 
extent  of  five  per  cent.,  provided  the  saliva  is  not  too  greatly 
diluted.  Present  in  larger  quantities,  or  when  mixed  with  weak 
or  greatly  diluted  saliva,  they  exert  a  retarding  influence  upon 
amylolytic  action  which  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  contained 
alcohol.  The  inhibitory  action  is  connected  mainly  with  the 
acidity  of  the  alcoholic  fluid,  for  on  neutralization  of  this  acid- 
ity the  inhibitory  action  of  the  liquor  ceases.  Rum  differs  from 
whiskey  and  brandy  in  having  a  somewhat  greater  inhibitory 
action,  due  simply  to  the  greater  acidity  of  this  fluid,  and  is 
nowise  connected  with  the  alcohol  present. 

The  heavier  alcohols,  viz.,  amyl,  butyl,  propyl,  etc.,  all  tend 
to  increase  the  amylolytic  action  of  the  saliva  when  present  in 
small  quantity. 

Wines,  as  a  class,  when  present  in  small  amount,  have  little 
or  no  deleterious  action  upon  the  chemical  processes  of  gastric 
digestion.  In  small  amount  they  may  even  increase  somewhat 
the  rate  of  digestive  action.  In  larger  quantities  they  have 
more  or  less  of  a  retarding  effect,  which  is  dependent  more 
upon  the  character  and  amount  of  the  solid  matter  present  than 
upon  the  contained  alcohol.  Thus,  with  wines  containing  ten 
per  cent,  of  alcohol  the  alcohol  is  of  minor  importance  so  far  as 
the  influence  of  the  'fluid  upon  the  solvent  or  digestive  power 
of  the  gastric  juice  is  concerned. 

On  pancreatic  digestion  wines  have  a  far  greater  inhibitory 
action  than  the  stronger  alcoholic  liquors.  This  action,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  is  almost  entirely  independent  of  the 
content  of  alcohol  and  is  very  closely  connected  with  the  acid- 
ity of  the  fluid.  Thus,  a  strongly  acid  wine,  like  a  claret  with 
only  ten  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  has  a  far  greater  retarding  action 
on  trypsin-proteolysis  than  a  sherry  with  twice  that  content  of 
alcohol  but  with  less  acidity. 

On  salivary  digestion  wines  as  a  class  show  a  very  powerful 
inhibitory  effect,  an  effect  which  is  due  almost  entirely  to  their 
acid  properties.  Thus,  when  the  acidity  of  a  wine  is  neutralized 
it  loses  completely  its  inhibitory  effect  on  salivary  digestion. 

Malt  liquors  in  small  quantities  are  without  any  marked  in- 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  251 

fluence  on  the  digestive  power  of  the  gastric  juice.  In  larger 
quantities  they  cause  an  inhibition  of  proteolysis  which  is  en- 
tirely unconnected  with  the  small  amounts  of  alcohol  present, 
but  directly  traceable  to  the  comparative!}'  large  amounts  of 
extractives  they  contain. 

On  pancreatic  digestion  the  malt  liquors  as  a  class  exert  an 
inhibitory  effect  which,  however,  is  not  very  pronounced.  The 
retarding  action  is  due  mainly  to  the  character  of  the  solid  or 
extractive  matters  present  in  the  liquors  and  is  practically  un- 
connected with  the  content  of  alcohol.  The  inhibitory  action 
of  malt  liquors  is  far  less  pronounced  than  that  of  wines. 

On  salivary  digestion  malt  liquors  have  a  very  great  retard- 
ing effect,  especially  when  the  saliva  is  quite  dilute.  With 
saliva  less  diluted  the  retarding  action  is  far  less  pronounced. 
The  inhibitory  action  of  these  liquors  is  due  solely  to  their 
acidity.  Remove  the  acidity  by  neutralization  with  an  alkali 
and  the  inhibitory  action  disappears. 

Finally,  it  is  to  be  plainly  understood  that  these  conclusions 
apply  solely  to  the  influence  of  the  various  liquors  studied  upon 
the  purely  chemical  processes  of  digestion  —  i.  e.,  upon  amylo- 
lysis  and  proteolysis.  The  results  recorded  do  not  afford  data 
for  drawing  any  broad  or  general  conclusions  regarding  the  in- 
fluence of  alcoholic  drinks  upon  digestion  or  alimentation,  since 
they  throw  no  light  upon  possible  modifications  of  secretion, 
absorption,  or  peristalsis.  We  have  now  positive  data  regard- 
ing the  action  of  alcohol  and  various  alcoholic  fluids  upon  the 
digestive  action  or  solvent  power  of  the  saliva,  gastric  juice, 
and  pancreatic  juice,  the  three  important  digestive  fluids  of  the 
body  ;  but  before  we  can  answer  the  question,  How  do  alcoholic 
fluids  affect  digestion  ?  we  must  ascertain  the  influence  of  these 
fluids  upon  the  secretion  of  the  digestive  juices  and  upon  the 
absorption  of  the  products  of  digestion,  as  well  as  upon  peri- 
stalsis, and  not  until  these  points  have  been  thoroughly  studied 
shall  we  be  able  to  understand  fully  the  action  of  these  bever- 
ages upon  the  whole  process  of  digestion. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Bernard,  C. :  Influence  de  I'alcool  et  de  I'^ther  sur  les  secretions  du  tube 
digestif,  du  pancreas,  et  du  foie.  Compt.  rend.  Soc.  de  biol.,  1856,  Par., 
1857,  2  s.,  iii.  30-32.     Also  Gaz.  m^d.  de  Par.,  1856,  3  s.,  xi.  295. 


252  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Bikfalvi,  Karl:  Orvas-TermissethrdomJiuij's  drtesito.  KolossvJlr,  1885, 
131.  Also,  trand.  [Abstr.]  :  Ueber  die  Einwirkuiig  von  Alcohol,  Bier, 
Weill,  etc.,  auf  die  Vcrdauung.  Jahresbericht  fUr  Thierchemie,  1885,  xv. 
273. 

Blumenau,  E.  B. :  K  voprosu  o  deijstvii  alkoboly  a  na  otravlyeuia  jeludka 
u  zaorovych  (Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  Functions  of  Healthy  Stomach).  8°, 
St.  Petersburg,  1890,  59  pp.,  1  1.  Also,  Irnnsl.  :  Therap.  Monatsh.,  Berl., 
1890,  V.  504.  Also,  transl.  [Abstr.]  :  Jahresbericht  fur  Thierchemie,  1891, 
xxi.  212. 

Bouchardat  et  Sandras :  De  la  digestion  des  boissons  alcooliques,  et  de 
leur  role  dans  la  nutrition.  Ann.  de  chim.  et  phys..  Par.,  1847,  3  s.,  xxi. 
448. 

Buchner,  W. :  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Lehre  von  der  Einwirkung  des  Alkohols 
auf  die  Magenverdauung.  Deutsches  Archiv  f.  klin.  Med.,  Leipz.,  1881, 
xxix.  537.     Also  [Abstr.]  :  Jahresbericht  fur  Thierchemie,  1881,  xi.  286. 

Caillol  de  Poncy,  0.:  Action  du  rouge  de  Bordeaux  sur  la  digestion. 
Marseille  ra^A.,  1886,  xxiii.  194-198. 

Chittenden,  R.  H. :  Observations  on  the  Digestive  Ferments.  Medical 
News,  Phila.,  Feb.  16,  1889. 

Dastre,  A.  :  Solubility  et  activity  des  ferments  solubles  en  liquers  alcool- 
iques.    Arch.  d.  physiologie,  1896.     (5)  viii.  p.  126. 

Duggan,  J.  R. :  On  the  Influence  of  Alcohols  on  the  Conversion  of  Starch 
by  Diastase.  Stud.  Biol.  Lab.,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.,  Bait.,  1884-1887,  iii. 
483^90. 

Engesser,  H. :  Das  Pancreas.  Seine  Bedeutung  als  Verdauungsorgan  u. 
seine  Verwerthung  als  diiitetisches  Heilmittel.  8°,  Stuttgart,  1877,  53  pp. 
Also  [Abstr.]  :   Schmidt's  Jahrb.,  Leipz.,  1878,  clxxix.  139. 

Gluzinski,  U.  A. :  D  zi  alanie  wyskoku  nu  cynnosc  zotadku  ludzkiego  tak 
w  stanie  fizyolog.  jak  i  patolog.  (Effect  of  Alcohol  on  Functions  of  Human 
Stomach,  from  a  Physiological  and  Pathological  Point  of  View.)  Medy- 
cyna,  Warszawa,  1885,  xiii.  349  ;  365  ;  386  ;  402.  Also,  transl. :  Deutsches 
Arch.  f.  klin.  Med.,  Leipz.,  1886,  xxxix.  405-430.  Also,  transl.  [Abstr.] 
Jahresbericht  fUr  Thierchemie,  1886,  xvi.  263. 

Hare,  H.  A.  :  The  Influence  of  Beer  on  Salivary  and  Gastric  Digestion. 
Medical  News,  Phila.,  1887,  1.  649. 

Hougounenq,  L.  J. :  Recherches  nouveUes  sur  les  vins.  [Paris]  4°,  Lyon, 
1891,  32  pp.  Also  :  Lyon  MiA.,  1891,  Ixvi.  289-303.  Also  :  Ann.  d'hyg.. 
Par.,  1891,  3  s.,  xxvi.  5-21.  Also,  transl.  [Abstr.]  :  Centralbl.  f.  klin.  Med., 
Bonn,  1891,  xii.  698.  Also,  transl.  [Abstr.]  :  Jahresbericht  fur  Thierchemie, 
1891,  xxi.  212. 

Klikowicz,  S. :  Ueber  den  Einfluss  einiger  Arzneimittel  auf  die  Kunstliche 
Magenverdauung.  Arch.  f.  path.  Anat.,  etc.,  Berl.,  1885,  cii.  376.  Also 
[Abstr.]  :  Jahresbericht  fiir  Thierchemie,  1885,  xv.  276  ;  1886,  xvi.  266. 

Kretschy,  F. :  Beobachtungen  und  Versuche  an  einer  Magenfistelkrankeu. 
Deutsches  Arch.  f.  klin.  Med.,  Leipz.,  1876,  xviii.  527.  Also  [Abstr.]  : 
Jahresbericht  fiir  Thierchemie,  1876,  vi.  173.  Also  [Abstr.]  :  Schmidt's 
Jahrb.,  Leipz.,  1878,  clxxix.  121. 

Ogata,  M. :    Ueber  den  Einfluss  der  Genussmittel  auf  die  Magenver- 


DIGESTION   AND  SECRETION.  253 

dauung.  Arch.  f.  Hyg.,  MUnchen  u.  Leipz.,  1885,  iii.  204-214.  Also 
[Abstr.]  :  Jahresbericht  fiir  Thierchemie,  1885,  xv.  274. 

Penzoldl,  F. :  Beitrage  zur  Lehre  der  menscblichen  Magenverdauung 
unter  normaleu  uud  abuormeu  Verhaltiiissen.  Deutscbes  Arcb.  f.  klin. 
Med.,  Leipz.,  li.  535.  Also  [Abstr.]  :  Jabresbericbt  fiir  Tbiercbemie,  1893, 
xxiii.  277. 

Petit,  M.  A.  :  Etudes  sur  les  ferments  digestifs.  J.  de  tbi^rap.,  Par., 
1880,  vii.  493. 

Petit,  M.A.:  Action  of  Pepsin  in  the  Presence  of  Alcoholic  Fluids.  Journ. 
pharm.  chim.,  xxx.  467.  Also,  transl.  [Abstr.]  :  Jahresbericht  fiir  Tbier- 
cbemie, 1879,  ix.  194. 

Partes :  Investigations  in  Artificial  Digestion.  Journ.  pharm.  chim.,  xxx. 
446.     Also,  transl.  [Abstr.l  :  Jabresbericbt  fiir  Tbiercbemie,  1879,  ix.  194. 

Roberts,  William:  Collected  Contributions  on  Digestion  and  Diet.  Lon- 
don, 1891,  Smith,  Elder  &  Co. 

Robertson,  W.  G.  A.:  The  Salivary  Digestion  of  Starch  in  Simple  and 
Mixed  Diets  :  an  Experimental  Inquiry.  [Influence  of  alcoholic  drinks, 
coffee,  etc.]     Journal  of  Anat.  and  Physiol.,  1898,  vol.  xxxii.  p.  615. 

Schellhaas,  H. :  Beitrage  zur  Pathologic  des  Magens.  Deutsehes  Arch, 
f.  klin.  Med.,  Leipz.,  1884-85,  xxxvi.  427.  Also  [Abstr.]  :  Jahresbericht 
fiir  Tbiercbemie,  1885,  xv.  271. 

Schiitz,  E. :  Einfluss  des  Alkobols  und  der  Salicylsiiure  auf  die  Magen- 
verdauung.    Also  [Abstr.]  :  Jahresbericht  fiir  Tliierchemie,  1885,  xv.  272. 

Uffelmann,  J. :  Studien  iiber  die  Verdaulicbkeit  der  Kuhmilch  und  Uber 
die  Mittel  ihre  Verdaulicbkeit  zu  erbbben.  Arch.  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  Bonn, 
1882,  xxix.  384. 

Watson,  W.  H. :  Notes  on  the  Effect  of  Alcohol  on  Saliva  and  on  the 
Chemistry  of  Digestion.     J.  Chem.  Soc,  Lond.,  1879,  xxxv.  539. 

Woljf,  Ludw. :  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Einwirkuug  verschiedener 
Genuss  und  Arzneimittel  anf  den  menscblichen  Magensaft.  Ztschr.  f.  klin. 
Med.,  Berl.,  1889,  xvi.  222.  Also  [Abstr.]  :  Jabresbericbt  fiir  Tbiercbemie, 
1889,  xix.  266. 

Wolffhardt,  R. :  Ueber  den  Einfluss  des  Alcohols  auf  die  Magenver- 
dauung. [Erlangen.]  8°,  Miinchen,  1890,  12  pp.  Also  :  Miinchen.  med. 
Woclienschr.,  1890,  xxxvii.  608-611.  Also  [Abstr.]  :  Jahresbericht  fiir 
Tbiercbemie,  1890,  xx.  247. 

2.  The  Influence  of  Alcohol  and  Alcoholic  Drinks  upon 
Digestion,  with  Special  Reference  to  Secretion.^ 
In  the  preceding  section  it  was  carefully  pointed  out  that 
any  complete  and  satisfactory  answer  to  the  question,  "  How 
do  alcoholic  fluids  affect  digestion?"  cannot  be  obtained  by 
any  single  line  of  experimentation,  since  the  rate  and  extent  of 

'  The  experiments  here  reported  were  originally  published  by  R.  H. 
Chittenden,  Laf.ayette  B.  Mendel,  and  Holmes  C.  Jackson  in  the  American 
Journal  of  Physiology,  vol.  i.  1898. 


254  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

digestion  may  be  modified  in  a  variety  of  ways  and  through  a 
variety  of  channels.  Thus,  due  consideration  must  be  given 
not  only  to  the  direct  influence  of  alcoholic  fluids  ujjon  the  sol- 
vent or  digestive  power  of  the  several  digestive  juices,  but  heed 
must  also  be  given  to  the  qualitative  and  quantitative  modifica- 
tions which  the  secretions  themselves  may  undergo,  as  well  as 
to  variations  in  the  rate  of  absorption  and  to  the  possible  inter- 
action of  these  and  other  factors.  The  data  already  presented 
throw  light  upon  the  extent  to  which  alcoholic  fluids  affect  the 
purely  chemical  processes  of  digestion.  In  the  continuation  of 
these  studies  our  efforts  have  been  directed  mainly  to  acquiring 
a  fuller  knowledge  of  the  action  of  alcoholic  beverages  upon 
secretion  ;  and  in  so  doing  new  data  have  been  obtained  which, 
it  is  hoped,  wiU  prove  of  value  in  explaining  more  fully  the 
action  of  these  fluids  upon  the  whole  process  of  digestion. 

A.    SALIVARY  SECEETION. 

The  current  statements  regarding  the  influence  of  alcohol  on 
the  secretion  of  saliva  are  confined  to  a  brief  reference  to  the 
direct  action  on  the  flow  into  the  mouth.  Thus,  it  is  stated  that 
almost  coincident  with  the  burning  sensation  caused  by  alcohol 
taken  into  the  mouth  a  copious  flow  of  saliva  begins,  due  to 
reflex  stimulation  of  the  glands  through  the  nervous  system. ' 
We  have  performed  experiments  with  the  object  of  ascertaining 
(1)  the  possible  variations  in  the  amount  of  salivary  flow  due 
to  the  presence  of  alcoholic  fluids  in  the  mouth,  psychical  influ- 
ences being  eliminated  as  far  as  possible  ;  (2)  the  character  of 
the  saliva  thus  secreted  ;  (3)  the  influence  upon  secretion  of 
alcoholic  beverages  introduced  into  the  stomach.  It  seemed 
particularly  desirable  to  investigate  this  latter  phase  in  view 
of  the  asserted  influence  of  irritating  substances  (vinegar,  alco- 
holic extract  of  pepper,  etc.)  when  introduced  directly  into  the 
alimentary  tract  through  a  fistula.  Thei-e  is  said  to  result 
under  such  conditions  a  reflex  flow  of  saliva,  the  nervous  im- 
pulses being  transmitted  through  the  vagus.^ 

1  Compare,  for  example,  Kiibne,  Lehrbuch  der  Physiol.  Chemie,  18C8, 
p.  2  ;  Lauder  Brunton,  Disorders  of  Digestion,  1886,  p.  143. 

^  Oehl  :  Comptes  rendus,  lis.  p.  336,  quoted  by  Heidenhaiii,  Hermann's 
Handhuck  der  Physiologic,  1883,  v.  p.  83. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  255 

The  Influence  of  Alcoholic  Fluids  introduced  into  the  Mouth. 

In  the  followiug  experiments  the  attempt  was  made  to  ascer- 
tain something  as  to  the  character  and  extent  of  the  direct 
stimulation  of  the  salivary  glands  provoked  by  the  presence  of 
alcoholic  fluids  in  the  mouth,  as  well  as  to  determine  what 
quantitative  changes,  if  any,  may  be  called  forth  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  secretion  in  this  way.  These  experiments  were 
made  on  both  man  and  dogs.  The  method,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, consisted  in  taking  into  the  mouth  10  c.  c.  of  the  fluid 
studied  and  allowing  it  to  remain  there  for  an  instant  previous 
to  swallowing  it.  The  normal  conditions  were  thus  closely 
imitated  and  reflex  influences  from  the  stomach  not  excluded. 
The  head  was  now  turned  to  one  side  and  rested  upon  the  arm, 
the  saliva  being  allowed  to  collect  in  the  cavity  of  the  mouth. 
As  the  fluid  accumulated  it  was  from  time  to  time,  during  fif- 
teen to  twenty  minutes,  allowed  to  flow  out  of  a  corner  of  the 
mouth  into  a  measuring  vessel.  Movements  of  the  jaws  and 
tongue  were  carefully  avoided  and  psychic  stimulation  was  ex- 
cluded as  far  as  possible.  The  method,  already  recommended 
by  Hofbauer,^  was  found  to  be  reasonably  satisfactory,  and 
control  trials  showed  that  the  quantities  of  saliva  obtained 
within  periods  of  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  could  be  ajij^ropri- 
ately  com2)ared. 

Of  the  saliva  thus  collected  3-4  c.  c.  were  taken  for  analysis. 
A  weighed  quantity  was  dried  in  a  tared  crucible  on  a  water- 
bath  and  then  for  four  or  five  hours  at  105°  C,  this  time  being 
found  sufficient  to  bring  crucible  and  contents  to  a  constant 
weight.  Total  solids  were  thus  determined.  The  crucible  was 
then  ignited,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  loss  by  volatilization 
of  salts.  The  ash  thus  obtained  is  given  as  salts  in  the  protocols, 
■  while  the  organic  constituents  were  obtained  by  subtracting  the 
amount  of  salts  from  the  total  solids.  In  some  cases  the  amount 
of  chlorine  in  the  ash  was  determined  by  the  usual  method 
of  titration  with  weak  silver  nitrate  solution.  The  analytical 
results  are  all  expressed  in  percentages.  Tlie  following  figures 
serve  to  illustrate  the  results  of  a  typical  duplicate  analysis  :  — 
*  Hofbauer,  Archivfiir  die  ges.  Physiol.,  1897,  Ixv.  p.  503. 


256 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 
Submaxillary  Saliva  of  Dog. 


Water. 

Total  eolidB. 

Organic  conetit. 
uentB. 

Salts. 

Chlorine. 

A. 
B. 

98.99 

98.99 

1.01 
1.01 

0.80 
0.78 

0.21 
0.23 

0.042 
0.040 

It  is  an  observation  easily  verified,  that  the  presence  of  a 
small  quantity  of  strong  alcohol  or  alcoholic  beverage  in  the 
mouth  excites  a  sudden  flow  of  saliva.  This  acceleration  in 
flow  is,  at  most,  a  very  brief  one,  and  the  rate  of  flow  quickly 
returns  to  that  pertaining  to  normal  conditions,  i.  e.,  absence  of 
stimuli  in  the  mouth.  The  stimulation  in  this  case  is  not  due 
merely  to  the  mechanical  action  of  the  fluid  introduced,  nor  is 
it  a  form  of  stimulation  specific  for  alcohol  alone,  as  our  ex- 
periments on  dogs  have  demonstrated.  Thus,  animals  were 
anaesthetized  with  ether  and  chloroform  through  a  tracheal  can- 
nula (thereby  avoiding  direct  stimulation  of  salivary  flow),  a 
small  dose  of  morjihine,  or  a  larger  one  of  chloral,  having  been 
previously  administered.  A  cannula  was  then  introduced  into 
one  or  both  ducts  of  the  submaxillary  glands.  A  small  wad  of 
absorbent  cotton  moistened  with  the  fluid  to  be  studied  was 
introduced  with  a  forceps  into  the  back  of  the  mouth  upon  the 
tongue  and  the  flow  of  saliva  from  the  ends  of  the  cannulas 
noted.  It  was  found  by  this  method  that  water  or  weak  sodium 
chloride  solution  (0.7  per  cent.)  produced  no  further  effect  than 
the  secretion  of  a  drop  or  two  of  saliva,  due  to  the  mere  mechan- 
ical action  of  introducing  the  wad ;  with  increasing  strengths 
of  salt  the  secretion  was  decidedly  accelerated,  flowing  readily 
after  application  of  twenty  per  cent,  salt  solution,  the  accelera- 
tion, however,  being  very  brief  in  duration  (five  minutes).  The 
buccal  cavity  could  be  swabbed  out  with  water  occasionally,  the 
effect  being  a  minimal  one.  It  was  found  that  weah  alcohol,  in- 
troduced in  this  way,  provoked  little,  if  any,  flow ;  while  stronger 
alcohol  (fifty  per  cent.)  gave  rise  to  a  transitory  secretion,  the 
stimulation  in  this  case,  however,  being  far  more  marked  than 
can  be  produced  by  the  indirect  action  of  alcohol  through  the 
stomach.  Thus,  in  one  animal,  in  which  the  activity  of  the 
glands  was  found  pronounced  when  a  drop  of  dilute  acetic  acid 
was  apj^lied  to  the  tongue,  injection  of  100  c.  c.  fifty  per  cent. 


DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION. 


257 


> 

£• 

o    •o 

^ 
■^ 

^ 
§ 

CO 

0" 

CO 

d 

00 
d 

0 
d 

(M 

13 

05 

85 

OS 

10 
d 

d 

00 
d 

0 

> 

.a  « 

CO 

S 

d 

d 

d 

0 
06 

o 

d 

d 

d 

0 
00 

> 

t-: 

05 

10 
10 

d 

d 

d 

q 

CO 

S 

'If 
■^ 

05 

d 

d 

•<* 
d 

q 

> 

•a 

© 

00 

i 

d 

d 

1 

0 
oo' 

1  a 

tr- 
io 

CO                  iH 
■*                  C<5 

d          d 

d 

0 
d 

> 

s  " 

o 

8 

d 

d 

10 
d 

0 
0) 

00 

§ 

d 

d 

10 
d 

0 
g 

5 

id 

^ 
§ 

d 

d 

CO 

d 

0 

CO 

1      0 

iq 

5 
d 

d 

CD 

d 

0 

CO 

!•= 

t- 

rf 

d 

CO 
CO 

d 

CO 
d 

0 
06 

(M 

1 « 

i 

■* 
^ 

01 
lO 

oi 
03 

d 

LO 

CO 

d 

CO 

d 

© 
00 

- 

1- 

o 

l-O 

o 

c<5 

d 

0 
d 

d 

© 

d 

01 

1     = 

o 

oi 

05 

10 

d 

10 
d 

© 

Is.. 

I'SS 
< 

4: 
a 

a. 

1"^ 
1^ 

a  S 
0  p. 

suo  a 

0  3 

"a 
if 

13    m- 

258  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

alcohol  directly  into  the  stomach  failed  to  provoke  any  reflex 
salivary  flow  in  half  an  hour. 

Turning  now  to  the  influence  of  alcoholic  fluids  upon  the  rate 
of  flow  and  composition  of  the  saliva  in  man,  the  accompanying 
experiments,  by  the  method  above  indicated,  may  be  cited  (page 
257).  The  first  two  (I  and  II)  show  the  results  obtained 
with  successive  portions  of  water ;  in  the  following  ones  a  con- 
trol experiment  with  water  in  each  instance  preceded  the  trial 
with  the  alcoholic  fluid. 

The  alcoholic  content  of  the  fluids  employed  was  as  follows : 
brandy,  forty-seven  per  cent,  by  volume ;  gin,  fifty-one  per 
cent. ;  sherry,  twenty-one  per  cent. 

From  these  figures  it  is  seen  that  the  results  obtained  with 
two  successive  portions  of  water  scarcely  differ  from  each  other, 
the  tendency,  however,  being  towards  decreased  flow  accom- 
panied by  decrease  in  dissolved  material  in  the  saliva.  Inter- 
preted in  physiological  terms,  these  results  indicate  that  the 
second  stimulation  with  water  is,  if  anything,  weaker  than  its 
predecessor.  In  decided  contrast  appear  the  results  obtained 
with  the  alcoholic  liquors.  Here  may  be  observed  an  increased 
flow  of  saliva,  not  pronoimced,  but  accompanied  by  an  increase 
in  both  organic  and  inorganic  constituents.  The  effect  is  pre- 
cisely analogous,  both  in  composition  and  rate  of  flow,  to  that 
brought  about  by  an  increase  in  intensity  of  stimulation  when 
the  salivary  glands  are  electrically  excited  through  their  nerves. ^ 

The  following  diagram  represents  in  graphic  form  the  results 
given  in  the  preceding  table,  i.  e.,  (1)  the  relative  rate  of  flow 
induced  by  water  and  by  the  alcoholic  fluid ;  (2)  the  content  of 
solid  matter,  together  with  the  relative  proportion  of  ash  or  in- 
organic matter  and  of  organic  matter  as  indicated  by  the  loss  on 
ignition. 

1  Cf.  Heidenhain,  Archw  fur  die  ges.  Physiol.,  1878,  xvii.  7,  and  Her- 
mann's Handbuch  der  Physiologie,  v.  52. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


II  II  ll  II 


I.  II.  III.  IV.  V.  VI.  VII. 

a.  b.  a.  b.         a.  b.  a.  b.  a.  b.  a.  b.         a.  b. 

Water.      Water.    Brandy.    Brandy.    Brandy.    Brandy.     Gin. 


Diagram  illustrating  the  relative  influence  of  alcoholic  fluids  on  the  rate  of 
secretion  and  composition  of  human  saliva. 


The  lufluence  of  Alcoholic  Liquors  introduced  directly  into  the 
Stomach. 

In  our  experiments  on  the  reflex  stimulation  of  salivary  flow, 
the  attempt  to  produce  a  persistent  secretion  clue  to  the  pre- 
•sence  of  alcohol  in  the  stomach  was  unsuccessful ;  nor  have  we 
been  able  to  obtain  evidence  of  an  unusual  flow  of  saliva  under 
such  circumstances  in  dogs  with  gastric  fistulae.  It  seemed 
desirable,  however,  to  examine  the  possible  direct  influence  of 


260  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

alcoholic  fluids  on  the  salivary  glands  and  the  resulting  secre- 
tion, when  other  factors  were  excluded  as  far  as  possible.  In 
these  experiments  dogs  from  ten  to  eighteen  kilos  were  used. 
Chloroform-ether  mixture  was  employed  to  produce  anaesthesia 
and  was  administered  through  a  tracheal  tube  in  part  of  the 
experiments,  the  danger  of  respiratory  difficulties  resulting 
from  salivary  flow  induced  in  the  glands  as  a  result  of  the 
ether  stimulation  being  thus  avoided.  In  the  later  stages  of 
the  experiments  the  alcohol  introduced  usually  sufficed  to  main- 
tain the  animal  in  perfect  quiet.  Frederictj  ^  lias  recommended 
the  use  of  alcohol  for  producing  narcosis  in  rabbits  ;  it  has  been 
found  quite  satisfactory  for  this  purpose  in  the  dog,  the  effects 
passing  off  with  relative  rapidity. 

A  glass  cannula,  bent  at  the  end,  was  tied  in  Wharton's  duct 
(and  occasionally  a  second  cannula  into  the  duct  of  the  sub- 
lingual gland).  The  chordo-lingual  nerve  was  ligatured  and 
cut  at  some  distance  centrally  to  the  point  where  the  chorda 
tympani  branches  oft'  to  the  glands.  All  secretion  in  the  corre- 
sponding gland  was  thus  stopped,  except  dui-ing  stimulation  of 
the  chorda,  which  was  accomplished  through  raising  the  periph- 
eral end  of  the  cut  nerve  by  the  ligature  and  slipping  hook 
electrodes  under  it.  The  interrupted  current  of  a  du  Bois 
induction  coil  with  a  single  element  was  used  as  the  stimulus. 
Saliva  was  collected  in  small  graduated  cylinders.  Alcohol 
was  introduced  into  the  stomach  by  making  an  incision  through 
the  linea  alba,  etc.,  and  the  fluid  was  injected  directly  into  the 
organ  thus  exposed  by  means  of  a  large  needle-pointed  syringe. 
By  careful  avoidance  of  the  larger  gastric  vessels,  bleeding  was 
minimal.  The  general  course  of  the  experiments  was  as  fol- 
lows :  A  distance  between  the  primary  and  secondary  coil  of 
the  inductorium  was  selected,  such  as  a  preliminary  trial  showed 
to  give  a  medium  rate  of  flow.  This  stimulus  was,  so  far  as 
possible,  kept  constant  throughout  the  experiment.  The  chorda 
was  repeatedly  stimulated  for  periods  of  one  minute,  followed 
by  pauses  of  two  minutes,  during  which  the  nerve  was  kept 
covered.  In  this  way  sufficient  quantities  of  saliva  for  analysis 
were  collected.  Before  collecting  a  sample  of  saliva  under  any 
given  conditions,  the  six  or  seven  drops  first  discharged  were 
thrown  away,  and  thus  the  fluid  stored  up  from  previous  stimu- 
'  Fredericq,  Manipulations  de  physiologie,  p.  19. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


261 


lation  in  the  gland  lumina,  ducts,  and  cannula  was  avoided.^ 
After  collecting  two  or  three  control  samples,  the  fluid  to  be 
considered  (usually  warmed  slightly)  was  injected  into  the 
stomach  in  the  manner  already  described,  and  this  was  followed 
by  a  pause  of  five  minutes.  The  pulse  was  observed  at  frequent 
intervals  to  detect  any  possible  influence  on  the  heart's  action 
and  consequent  blood  flow.  The  samples  of  saliva  collected 
were  analyzed  in  the  manner  already  described.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  the  experiment  the  animal  was  kiUed  by  bleeding, 
and  the  condition  of  the  glands,  as  well  as  of  the  stomach  and 
other  organs,  examined.  The  protocols  of  three  typical  experi- 
ments are  given  below :  — 


1,  iii.  1897.  Dog.  Weight  14  kilos.  Chloroform  and  ether  administered 
through  tracheal  tube  during  part  of  the  experiment.  Distance  of  sec- 
ondary coil  =  200  mm.  Period  of  stimulation  =  1  min.,  followed  by  a 
pause  of  2  min. 


Time. 

Amount 
saliva 

Rate  of 
secretion 

Water. 

Total 
solids. 

Organic 

matter. 

Salts. 

Chlorine. 

collected. 

per  min. 

c.  c. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

I^ 

10.35 

5.3 

0.7 

98.76 

1.24 

0.94 

0.30 

0.026 

II 

11.08 

5.4 

0.6 

98.94 

1.06 

0.73 

0.33 

0.036 

III 

11.38 

5.2 

0.8 

98.95 

1.05 

0.69 

0.36 

0.044 

IV 

11.56 

4.0 

0.8 

98.90 

1.10 

0.048 

12.20 

80  c.  c. 

50  per  c 

ent.  alcohol  injected  into  stomach. 

V 

12.35 

4.8 

0.8 

98.96  1     1.04    1     0.69    1     0.35 

0.047 

VI 

12.55 

4.8 

0.8 

99.01   1     0.99    1     0.59    |     0.40 

0.076 

1.15 

100  c.  c 

.  50  per 

cent,  alcohol  injected  into  stomach. 

VII 

1.21 

4.9 

0.8 

99.05 

0.95 

0.59 

0.36 

0.0.55 

VIII 

1.42 

6.0 

1.0 

99.05 

0.95 

0.60 

0.35 

0.060 

IX 

2.02 

5.5 

0.9 

99.14 

0.86 

0.52 

0.34 

0.048 

X 

2.24 

5.2 

0.8 

99.17  1     0.83 

0.47 

0.36 

0.042 

2.53 

100  e.  ( 

.  50  per 

cent,  alcohol  injected  into  stomach. 

XI 

2.58 

4.5 

0.6 

99.07 

0.93 

0.63 

0.30 

0.034 

XII 

3.27 

6.0 

0.6 

99.18 

0.82 

0.53 

0.29 

0.037 

XIII 

4.10 

5.0 

0.7 

90.17 

0.83 

0.49 

0.34 

0.038 

Dog  killed.  Stomach  mucosa  normal  in  appearance.  Urinary  bladder 
and  gall  bladder  greatly  distended.  Stomach  contents  =  450  c.  c,  faintly 
acid  in  reaction  and  containing  24.6  grams  of  alcohol.     No  food  present. 

'  Cf.  Heidenlmin,  Hermann's  Handbuch  der  Pkysiologie,  v.  53  ;  Langley 
and  Fletcher,  Philosophical  Transactions,  1889,  clxxx.  B.  112. 

^  In  this  first  period  the  distance  of  the  secondary  coil  was  280  mm.,  but 
the  stimulation  was  unsatisfactory. 


262 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


22,  iii.  1897.  Bitch.  Weight  10  kilos.  Chloroform  and  ether  adminis- 
tered during  operation.  Tracheotomy  performed  after  operation.  Dis- 
tance of  secondary  coil  =  240  mm.  Period  of  stimulation  =:  1  min.,  fol- 
lowed by  2  min.  pause. 


Time. 

Amount 

saliva 

collected. 

Rate  of 
secretion 
per  min. 

Water, 
per  cent. 

Total 
solids. 

per  cent. 

Organic 
matter. 

per  cent. 

Salts. 
per  cent. 

Cblorine. 
percent. 

I 

11.30 

4.6 

1.1 

98.68 

1.32 

0.03 

0.29 

0.032 

11 

11.42 

4.7 

0.9 

98.70 

1.30 

0.96 

0.34 

0.074 

111 

11.67 

4.0 

0.7 

98.84 

1.16 

0.73 

0.43 

0.146 

IV 

12.35 
12.41 

150  c.  c 
4.9 

.  burgundy  injected  into  stomach. 
0.8         98.72        1.28         0.91 

0.37 

0.092 

V 

12.59 

5.5 

0.6         98.78        1.22         0.87 

0.35 

0.096 

VI 

1.29 

4.7 

0.7        98.91        1.09         0.82 

0.27 

0.071 

VII 

2.00 
2.06 

200  c.  e 
4.7 

.  burgundy  injected  into  stomach. 
0.6         98.88  1     1.12    1     0.82 

0.30 

0.058 

VIII 

2.32 

- 

- 

98.98 

1.02 

0.69 

0.33 

0.099 

Dog  killed  ;  stomach  contents  =  190  c.  c.  ;  claret  color  ;  mucosa  not 
inflamed.  Contents  contained  13.1  grams  of  alcohol.  The  burgundy  useli 
contained  5.2  per  cent  of  alcohol. 


12,  iv.  1897.  Bitch.  Weight  9  kilos.  Chloroform  and  ether  during  operas 
tion.  Distance  of  secondary  coil  =  190  mm.  Stimulation,  1  min.,  fol- 
lowed by  a  pause  of  2  min. 


Time. 

I 

9.24 

11 

9.40 

10.40 

III 

10.53 

IV 

11.21 

11.50 

V 

11.56 

VI 

12.25 

VII 

12.51 

1.18 

VIII 

1.23 

IX 

1.44 

X 

2.03 

XI 

2.25 

Amount 

saliva 
collected. 


Water, 
per  cent. 


4.5  0.9         98.76        1.24         0.97 

4.6  0.7         98.89        1.11         0.81 
100  c.  c.  distilled  water  injected  into  stomach. 

4.7  I      0.6     I    99.04  I     0.96    I     0.66 
6.0     I      0.5     I    99.09  I     0.91    |     0.60 

100  c.  c.  distilled  water  injected  into  stomach 
4.5     I      0.5     I    99.30  I     0.70    I     0.54 

4.5  0.6        99.33        0.67         0.36 

4.6  I      0.7     I    99.39  |     0.61    |     0.36 
100  c.  c.  50  per  cent,  alcohol  injected  into  stomach. 

6.7  "  "  

4.8 
4.7 
4.7 


0.7 

99.35 

0.65 

0.36 

0.8 

99.38 

0.62 

0.32 

0.7 

99.47 

0.53 

0.29 

0.6 

99.47 

0.53 

0.22 

Salts. 

Chlorine. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

0.27 

0.062 

0.30 

0.054 

0.30 

0.049 

0.31 

0.060 

0.16 

0.024 

0.31 

0.078 

0.25 

0.063 

0.29 

0.067 

0.30 

0.087 

0.24 

0.087 

0.31 

0.097 

Dog  killed.     Stomach  mucosa  normal, 
of  alcohol. 


Contents  =  100  c.  c.     No  odor 


DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION.  263 

Experiments  of  the  character  indicated  by  these  protocols 
were  carried  out  with  alcohol  in  varying  doses,  whiskey,  brandy, 
and  wine,  and  control  experiments  with  water  were  also  made. 
In  attempting  to  interpret  the  analytical  data  thus  obtained  in 
experiments  extending  over  several  hours,  it  is  necessary  to  bear 
in  mind  facts  regarding  salivary  secretion  which  seem  to  be 
sufficiently  established.  Ludwig '  showed  that  the  submaxillary 
saliva  secreted  during  stimulation  of  the  chorda  tympani  under- 
goes a  change  in  composition  varying  with  the  duration  of  the 
flow,  the  content  of  organic  solids  decreasing  in  far  greater 
degree  than  the  dissolved  salts.  Heidenhain^  found  that  the 
percentage  of  salts  in  the  saliva  varies  directly  with  the  rate  of 
secretion,  quite  independently  of  the  state  of  the  gland,  the 
organic  constituents,  however,  being  influenced  by  the  condition 
of  the  secreting  organ  as  well  as  by  the  strength  of  stimulus 
and  resulting  rate  of  secretion.  These  observations,  verified  by 
Werther  ^  and  by  Langley  and  Fletcher,'*  have  been  extended 
by  the  latter  investigators,  who  formulated  the  opinion  that 
"  the  secretion  of  organic  substances  depends  wholly,  or  almost 
wholly,  upon  the  strength  of  the  stimulus,  whilst  the  secretion 
of  water  and  of  salts  depends  also  upon  the  amount  of  blood 
flowing  through  the  gland."  ^  In  view  of  the  well-known  fact 
that  changes  in  the  strength  of  the  stimidus  immediately  bring 
about  a  change  in  both  rate  of  secretion  and  composition  of  the 
saliva,  we  have  attempted  to  maintain  a  constant  stimulus 
throughout  each  series  of  observations  by  selecting  some  satis- 
factory distance  of  the  secondary  coil  of  the  inductorium  and 
by  applying  the  electrodes  as  uniformly  as  possible.  Owing  to 
the  gradual  decline  in  the  irritability  of  the  exposed  nerve,  the 
impossibility  of  applying  the  electrodes  constantly  in  one  posi- 
tion, and  other  unavoidable  difficulties,  ideal  results  cannot  be 
obtained.  However,  the  difficulties  were  present  in  every  exper- 
iment and  the  results  are  therefore  more  or  less  comparable. 

An  examination  of  the  data  obtained  in  the  manner  above 

1  Ludwig  and  Beeher,  Zeitschr.  f.  rat.  Med.,  1851,  N.  F.,  i.  278.    Cf.  also 
Heidenbaiu,  Hermann's  Handhuch  der  Physiologie,  v.  47-49. 
-  Heidenhain,  Archiv  fiir  die  ges.  Pki/sioL,  1878,  xvii.  pp.  4,  6. 
3  Werther,  Arclui:  f.  d.  ffex.  'Ph;/.siol.,  1886,  xxxviii.  p.  293. 
*  Langley  and  Fletcher,  loc.  cit.,  152. 
5  Ibid.,  p.  132. 


264  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

indicated  shows  no  constant  appreciable  influence  of  alcohol  or 
alcoholic  fluids  upon  the  rate  of  secretion  of  submaxillary  (or 
sublingual)  saliva  under  the  influence  of  a  constant  external 
stimulus.  Even  large  doses  of  alcohol,  sufficient  to  produce  pro- 
longed narcosis,  fail  to  check  the  salivary  flow,  a  result  in  strik- 
ing contrast  to  the  effects  which  morphine  may  bring  about  when 
used  in  moderately  large  doses.  We  have  not  infrequently 
observed,  in  other  experiments,  an  entire  absence  of  salivary 
flow,  even  with  very  strong  stimuli,  when  morphine  was  unin- 
tentionally given  in  doses  larger  than  were  necessary  to  produce 
a  mild  narcosis.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  likewise  an 
absence  of  any  stimulating  action  on  the  glands,  in  our  experi- 
ments ;  at  least  the  slight  variations  in  the  rate  of  flow  after 
alcohol  is  administered  are  no  greater  than  those  brought  about 
by  water  alone  (cf.  third  protocol  above).  On  the  total  solids 
likewise,  the  presence  of  alcohol  seems  to  exercise  no  noticeable 
influence.  There  is  a  tendency  toward  decrease  in  amount  as 
the  experiments  progress  ;  this  decrease,  however,  is  entirely 
confined  to  the  organic  constituents  of  the  saliva,  the  salts 
remaining  comparatively  constant  in  amount,  as  can  be  seen  in 
the  protocols  above.  The  decrease  in  organic  substances  is  in 
no  way  to  be  attributed  to  alcohol,  since  it  may  be  obtained 
with  water  alone  (cf.  protocol  third),  or  in  the  course  of  any 
protracted  salivai'y  secretion.  Nor  is  this  deciease  remarkable 
when  it  is  remembered  that  a  small  gland  weighing  a  few  grams 
has  furnished  fifty  to  seventy-five  grams  of  saliva  in  the  course 
of  thi-ee  or  four  hours.  The  organic  constituents  of  the  cells 
must  thus  be  exhausted  somewhat  more  rapidly  than  the  ana- 
bolic processes  of  the  gland  can  replace  them,  while  the  salts 
are  obtained  with  relative  ease  from  the  blood.  Any  effect  upon 
the  secretion  of  inorganic  salts  such  as  might  result  in  accord- 
ance with  Langley's  law  (cf.  page  263)  was  not  observed.  A 
large  number  of  determinations  of  the  alkalinity  of  the  saliva 
(towards  lacmoid)  likewise  failed  to  show  any  constant  rela- 
tions. It  is  interesting  in  this  connection  to  note  that  the  sub- 
maxillary saliva  of  the  dog  was  always  found  alkaline  to  phe- 
nolphthalein,  litmus,  lacmoid,  and  methylorange.  Mixed  human 
saliva,  like  the  bile  of  a  number  of  animals,  is  almost  always 
acid  toward  phenolphthalein.^ 
*  Chittenden,  "The  Reactions  of  Some  Animal  Fluids,"  Science,  n.  s.  v.  902. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  265 

B.    GASTRIC   SECRETION. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  in  an  accurate  and  com- 
plete study  of  the  influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  drinks  upon 
gastric  digestion,  no  single  line  of  experimentation  can  lead  to 
full  and  concise  results  covering  the  whole  ground  of  inquiry. 
It  was  therefore  deemed  advisable,  for  experimental  purposes, 
to  study  the  subject  under  several  distinct  heads,  as  (1)  the 
influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  drinks  upon  the  process  of 
secretion  ;  (2)  upon  the  processes  of  absorption  ;  (3)  upon  the 
motor  functions  of  the  alimentary  canal ;  and  (4)  upon  the 
purely  chemical  processes  of  gastric  digestion.  The  last  phase 
has  already  been  considered  at  some  length. 

The  older  announcements  regarding  the  influence  of  alcohol 
are  summarized  in  the  statement  that  it  is  a  strong  stimulant 
of  gastric  secretion,  and  alcohol  is  recommended  as  a  means  of 
obtaining  gastric  juice  from  fistulfe  in  animals.^  Larger  doses 
are  regarded  as  detrimental  to  the  stomach,  giving  rise  to  trans- 
udation of  alkaline  fluid,  —  a  process  evidentlj'  pathological.^ 
Gluzinski  ^  found  in  experiments  on  man  with  brandy  and  dilute 
alcohol  that  these  liquors  gave  rise,  after  a  brief  preliminary 
period,  to  the  formation  of  a  very  active  secretion  rich  in 
hydrochloric  acid. 

Likewise  Wolff '  states  that  cognac  in  small  doses  increases 
the  secretion  of  hydrocliloric  acid,  while  in  larger  quantity  it 
decreases  the  acidity  of  the  gastric  juice  and  retards  peptone 
formation.  The  stomach  fails  to  respond  in  a  positive  way, 
however,  after  the  continued  use  of  alcohol.  While  Klem- 
perer^  failed  to  note  more  than  a  very  slight  increase  in  secre- 
tion resulting  from  moderate  doses  of  afcohol,  Blumenau  ^  ob- 

1  Cf.  Frerichs,  Wagner's  Handwdrterbuch  der  Physiologie,  1846,  iii.  (1), 
788  ;  Kiihne,  Lehrhuch,  pp.  28,  30 ;  Heidenhain,  Hermann's  Handbuch  der 
Physiologie,  v.  115. 

*  Cf.  Heidenhain,  loc.  cit. ;  Lauder  Brunton,  Disorders  of  Digestion,  1886, 
p.  144. 

"  Gluzinski,  Deutsches  Arckiv.  f.  klin.  Med.,  1886,  xxxLx.  405.  See 
Jahresbericht  fiir  Thierchemie,  1886,  xvi.  263. 

*  Wolff,  Zeilschr.  f.  klin.  Med.,  1889,  xvi.  222  j  Jahresbericht  f.  Thier- 
chemie, 1889,  xix.  266. 

6  Klemperer,  Zeitschr.  f.  klin.  Med.,  1890,  xvii.  Supp.,  324  ;  Centralbl.  f. 
med.  Wissen.  1891,  p.  751. 

'  Blumenau,  Therapeutische  Monatshefte,  1890,  v.  504  ;  Jahresbericht  f. 
Thierchemie,  1891,  xx.  212. 


266  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

served  that  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent,  alcohol  introduced  into 
the  healthy  human  stomach  acts  as  a  secretory  stimulant,  bring- 
ing about  an  increased  flow  of  gastric  juice  with  rise  of  acidity 
after  a  period  of  two  to  three  hours.  More  recently  Brandl  * 
has  found  in  experiments  on  fistulous  dogs  that  alcohol  —  as 
contrasted  with  water  introduced  with  foodstuffs  into  the  stom- 
ach —  brings  about  an  unfailing,  though  not  particularly  large, 
increase  in  gastric  secretion.  With  repeated  and  increasing 
doses  of  alcohol,  Haan  ^  has  further  observed  an  augmentation 
of  acidity  in  the  dog,  followed  by  a  diminution  in  the  amount 
of  secretion  and  a  gradual  decline  in  acidity  after  several  doses. 
In  our  first  series  of  experiments  on  gastric  secretion,  atten- 
tion was  directed  to  the  volume  and  acidity  resulting  from  the 
introduction  of  alcoholic  fluids  into  the  stomach,  independently 
of  any  stimulating  action  due  to  food  simultaneously  intro- 
duced. Dogs  in  fasting  condition  were  employed  in  every 
instance,  and  morphine  sulphate  (introduced  subcutaneously) 
followed  by  chloroform-ether  was  used  preparatory  to  operative 
interference.  The  method  consisted  in  ligating  the  duodenum 
just  beyond  the  pylorus  and  then  introducing  a  definite  vol- 
ume of  the  fluid  to  be  examined  into  the  empty  stomach  in 
the  manner  already  indicated  in  previous  experiments.  In  sev- 
eral cases,  dogs  with  gastric  fistulie  were  employed.  The 
abdomen  was  quickly  sewed  up  after  this  operation,  chloroform- 
ether  stopped  and  the  animal  allowed  entire  freedom  of  move- 
ment. The  liquid  employed  was  ordinarily  warmed  gently  to 
avoid  the  asserted  stimulating  action  of  cold  fluids  on  the  gas- 
tric mucosa.^  Ligations  of  the  cesophagus  and  oesoiohageal  fis- 
tulse  were  avoided,  since  a  somewhat  extended  exjjcrience  with 
gastric  fistulse  dogs,  as  well  as  the  experiments  about  to  be 
described,  have  convinced  us,  in  agreement  with  Heidenhain's 
observations,*  that  under  ordinary  circumstances,  i.  e.,  in  the 
absence  of  unusual  stimuli  (and  with  slightly  narcotized  ani- 
mals), the  amount  of  saliva  secreted  is  small  at  most  and  fails 
to  induce  any  pronounced  secretion  in  the  stomach.^  Further, 

1  Brandl,  Zeitschr.f.  Biologic,  1892,  xxix.  304. 

2  Haan,  Camples  rendus  de  la  societe  de  hiologie,  1895,  ii.  817. 
'  Cf.  Kiibne,  Lekrbuck  der  physiol.  Chemie,  28. 

*  Hermann's  Handbuch,  v.  112. 

*  Compare  also  the  experiment  described  on  page  260. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  267 

we  have  found  that  an  unusual  flow  of  saliva  is  at  once  readily 
detected  by  the  physical  character  of  the  stomach  contents, 
e.  g.,  frothing,  etc.  Furthermore,  the  conditions  of  our  experi- 
ments were  intended  to  approach  those  normally  obtaining  in 
the  body  as  nearly  as  possible ;  and  finally,  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  control  experiments  in  which  water  was  introduced  into 
the  stomach  have  left  no  doubt  as  to  the  validity  of  the  method. 
At  the  end  of  from  three  to  four  hours  —  a  period  shown  by  our 
experiments  to  cover  the  digestion  time  of  a  test  meal  for  the 
dog  —  the  animal  was  bled  to  death,  the  CESophagus  ligated  at 
the  lower  end,  the  stomach  removed  from  the  body,  wiped  free 
from  blood,  and  the  contents  discharged  into  a  graduated  vessel. 
In  the  fluid  thus  obtained,  total  acidity,  free  and  combined  HCl, 
and  acid-reacting  salts  were  determined  by  the  method  of  Tijp- 
fer  ;  ^  alcohol  was  estimated,  when  present,  in  the  distillate  from 
a  definite  portion  of  the  gastric  contents,  by  the  pycnometer 
method ;  total  solids  were  determined  by  drying  a  weighed 
quantity  of  fluid  in  a  tared  crucible  at  100°-105°  C.  Protocols 
foUow  :  — 

Control  Experiments  ■with  Water. 
I.   31 V.  1897.    Dog,  with  gastric  fistula,  well  healed     Weight  21  kilos. 
Fluid  removed  completely  through  fistula. 
Introduced  200  c.  c.  distilled  water  at  10.50  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  1.55  P.  M.  =3^  hrs. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =:  160  c.  c.  =  80  per  cent,  of 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  the  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.203  per  cent.'' 

Free  HCl 0.192 

Loosely  combined  HCl    .     .  0.002 

Salts 0.009 

Total  solids 0.624 

II.   28  vi.  1897.     Dog,  with  gastric  fistula,  well  healed.      Weight  25 
kilos.     Fluid  removed  completely  through  fistula. 

Introduced  135  c.  c.  distilled  water  at  11  A.  M. 
Coutents  removed  at  1.45  p.  M.  =  2|  hrs. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  110  c.  c.  =:  81  per  cent,  of 
original  volume. 

'  Topfer,  Zeitschr.  f.  physiol.  Chemie,  1894,  xix.  104. 
^  Expressed  as  HCl  in  all  the  experiments. 


268  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Analysis  of  the  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.274  per  cent. 

FreeHCl 0.241 

Looa;ly  combined  HCl .     .     .  0.018 

Salts 0.015 

Total  solids 0.77 

III.  24  V.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  7.7  kilos. 

Introduced  125  c.  c.  distilled  water  at  10  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  1.50  P.  M.  =  3|  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  114  c.  e.^  91  per  cent,  of 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  the  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.094  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.065 

Loosely  combined  HCl       .     .     0.004 

Salts 0.025 

Total  solids 0.47 

IV.  29  V.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  14.5  liilos. 

Introduced  200  c.  c.  distilled  water  at  9.30  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  1.15  P.  M.  ^  3|  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  206  c.  c.  =  103  per  cent, 
of  original  volume.^ 

Analysis  of  the  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.047  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.040 

Loosely  combined  HCl        .     .     0.004 

Salts 0.003 

Total  solids 0.50 

V.   2  vi.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  10.5  kilos. 

Introduced  125  c.  c.  carbonated  loater  at  9  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  12.45  P.  M.  =  3|  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  125  c.  c.  =  100  per  cent, 
of  original  volume. 

Analysis  of  the  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.191  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.152 

Loosely  combined  HCl  .     .     .     0.014 

Salts 0.025 

Total  solids 0.55 

In  this  experiment  the  COj  was  completely  absorbed. 

VI.   1  vii.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  10  kilos. 

Introduced  76  c.  c.  of  2  per  cent,  dextrose  solution  at  9.10  A.  M. 

'  A  small  quantity  of  saliva  doubtless  found  its  way  into  the  stomach,  as 
the  dog  salivated  somewhat  at  the  beginning  of  the  operation  and  the 
stomach  contents  had  a  frothy  appearance. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  269 

Contents  removed  at  12.40  p.  M.  =  3^  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  ^  68  c.  c.  =  90  per  cent,  of 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  the  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.072  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.047 

Loosely  combined  HCl  .     .     .  0.007 

Salts 0.018 

Experiments  with  Strong  Ethyl  Alcohol. 
VII.    17  V.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  23  kilos. 

Introduced  200  c.  c.  of  37  per  cent,  alcohol  at  10.45  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  2.15  p.  M.  =  3^  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  i=  407  c.  c.  =^  203  per  cent, 
of  original  volume. 

Analysis  of  the  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.164  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.112 

Loosely  combined  HCl  .     .     .  0.043 

Salts 0.009 

VIII.   31  V.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  21  kilos.     Gastric  fistula  well  healed. 
Contrast  experiment  with  water  and  alcohol, 
a.  The  first  part  of  this  experiment  has  been  described  under  I.  page  267. 
3.  After   discharge  of   previous  stomach  contents  completely  through 
fistula,  200  c.  c.  37^  per  cent,  alcohol  were  introduced   into   the 
stomach  through  fistula  at  1.55  P.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  5  P.  M.  =  3^  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  460  c.  c.  =  230  per  cent, 
of  original  volume.' 

Analysis  of  the  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.220  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.164 

Loosely  combined  HCl  .     .     .  0.011 

Salts 0.045 

Total  solids 0.987 

Experiments  with  Weak  (5  per  cent.)  Ethyl  Alcohol. 
IX.   24  vi.  1897.     Bitch.     Weight  8  kilos. 

Introduced  100  c.  c.  .5  per  cent,  alcohol  at  10.45  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  2  p.  M.  :=  3^  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  z=  110  c.  c.  =;  110  per  cent, 
of  original  volume. 

Analysis  of  the  stomach  contents  gave  : 

'  A  post-mortem  examination  showed  that  the  stomach  contents  could  be 
completely  discharged  through  the  fistula  by  the  method  adopted. 


270  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Total  acidity 0.119  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.086 

Loosely  combined  HCl  .     .     .     0.011 

Salts 0.022 

Total  solids 0.69 

X.   8  vi.  1897.     Bitch.     Weight  7.3  kilos. 

Introduced  110  o.  c.  4.8  per  cent,  alcohol  at  9  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  12.45  P.  M.  ^  3|  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  135  c.  c.  =:  123  per  cent, 
of  original  volume. 

Analysis  of  the  stomach  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.202  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.148 

Loosely  combined  HCl  .     .     .     0.021 
Salts 0.033 

The  results  of  the  foregoing  experiments,  expressed  in  per- 
centages, are  combined  in  the  following  table  :  — 


A. 

With 
water. 

Relative  volume 

of  fluid  at  end  of 

experiment. 

Total 
acidity. 

Loosely 

combined 

HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

Salts. 

Total 
GoUds. 

I 
II 
III 

IV 
V 
VI 

80 
81 
91 
103 
100 
90 

0.203 
0.274 
0.094 
0.047 
0.191 
0.072 

0.002 
0.018 

0.004 
0.004 
0.014 
0.007 

0.192 
0.241 
0.065 
0.040 
0.152 
0.047 

0.009 
0.015 
0.025 
0.003 
0.025 
0.018 

0.62 
0.77 
0.47 
0.50 
0.55 

Average. 

90.8 

0.147 

0.008 

0.123 

0.016 

0.58 

B. 

With 
strong 
alcohol. 

Relative  volume 

of  tiu'd  at  end  of 

experimeut. 

Total 
acidity. 

Loosely 

combined 

HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

Salts. 

Total 
solids. 

VII 
VIII 

203 
230 

0.164 
0.220 

0.043 
0.011 

0.112 

0.164 

0.009 
0.045 

0.99 

Average. 

216.5 

0.192 

0.027 

0.138 

0.026 

0.99 

c. 

With  weak 
alcohol. 

Relative  volume 

of  fluid  at  end  of 

experiment. 

Total 
acidity. 

Loosely 

combined 

HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

Salts. 

Total 
solids. 

IX 
X 

110 
123 

0.119 
0.202 

0.011 

0.021 

0.086 
0.148 

0.022 
0.033 

0.69 

Average. 

116.5 

0.160 

0.016 

0.117 

0.027 

0.69 

DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


271 


A  glance  at  the  data  presented  leaves  little  doubt  as  to  the 
pronounced  stimulating  action  of  pure  ethyl  alcohol  upon  gas- 
tric secretion,  even  with  solutions  of  only  five  per  cent,  strength. 
The  effect  is  not  merely  one  characterized  by  the  discharge  of 
water  into  the  stomach  cavity,  but  gives  evidence  of  a  true 
secretory  process.  Thus,  the  volume  of  fluid  found  after  intro- 
duction of  water  into  the  stomach  is  not  increased,  there  being 
rather  a  tendency  in  the  opposite  direction.  Edkins,^  v.  Mer- 
ing,2  and  others  have  shown  that  the  absorption  of  water  from 
the  stomach  is  practically  nil,  while  the  absorption  of  alcohol 
goes  on  quite  rapidly.  In  our  own  experiments  the  alcohol 
used  had  entirely  disappeared  from  the  stomach  in  the  course 
of  the  experiments ;  the  question  of  absorption  will,  however, 
be  referred  to  in  another  connection.  With  five  per  cent,  alco- 
hol the  increase  in  the  volume  of  the  gastric  contents  is  notice- 
able, becoming  very  pronounced  with  the  stronger  percentages 
of  alcohol.  The  increase  in  total  solids  gives  confirmation  of 
stimulated  secretion,  as  does  also  the  increase  in  acidity.  It 
must  be  remembered,  further,  that  the  increase  in  acidity  shown 
by  the  figures  is  a  relative  one ;  expressed  absolutely  in  grams, 
the  total  acid  secreted  is  obviously  increased  in  far  greater 
degree  than  the  percentage  figures  indicate.  The  specific  action 
of  alcohol  is  strikingly  shown  in  Experiment  VIII.,  in  which 
the  conditions  permitted  of  comparative  experiments  with  water 
and  alcohol  on  the  same  animal,  with  the  following  results :  — 


Comparison  of  the  Two  Experiments 

(VIII. 

a,/3). 

Fluid  introduced 
into  stomach. 

Fluid  recov- 
ered from 
stomach  after 
three  hours. 

Rela- 
tive 
volume. 

Total, 
acidity. 

Free 
HCl. 

Loosely 

bined 
HCl. 

Salts. 

Total 
solids. 

200  e.  c.  water 
200  o.c.  alcohol  1 
(37^  per  cent.)  j' 

160  c.  c. 
460  c.  e. 

80r/, 
230^ 

0.203 
0.220 

0.192 
0.164 

0.002 
0.011 

0.009 
0.045 

0.624 
0.987 

A  comparison  of  the  proteolytic  activity  of  the  two  secretions 
by  Griitzner's  carmine-fibrin  method  showed  a  decidedly  greater 

'  Edkins,  Journal  of  Physiology,  1892,  xiii.  445. 

*  V.  Mering,  Verhandlungen  des  XII.  Congresses  f.  innere  Medicin,  Wies- 
baden, 1893  ;  Therapeutische  Monatshefte,  1893,  vii.  201. 


272  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

digestive  power  in  the  case  of  the  "  water  "  secretion.  Much 
stress  cannot  be  placed,  however,  on  a  single  experiment.  The 
gastric  fluids  obtained  in  the  experiments  with  alcohol  possessed 
strong  proteolytic  properties  in  every  case  examined. 

In  view  of  this  pronounced  action  of  alcohol  on  gastric  secre- 
tion it  seemed  desirable  to  ascertain  something  more  definite 
regarding  the  way  in  which  this  process  is  provoked.  The  con- 
trol experiments  with  water  gave  evidence  that  the  mere  con- 
tact of  the  fluid  with  the  stomach  mucosa  could  not  be  the 
cause  of  gastric  stimulation.  It  will  be  remembered  that  even 
vigorous  mechanical  stimulation  or  irritation  ordinarily  fails  to 
yield  more  than  a  few  grams  of  secretion,'  —  an  observation  in 
decided  contrast  to  the  phenomena  of  gastric  flow  during  the 
presence  of  digestible  materials  in  the  stomach.  The  following 
experiments  throw  light  on  the  question  raised :  — 

XI.   25  V.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  23  kilos.     The  intestine  was  ligatured 
just  beyond  the  pylorus.     Another  ligature  was  applied  below  the 
point   of  entrance  of   the  duct  of  Wirsung.     20  c.  c.  of  60  per 
cent,  alcohol  were  injected  into  the  lumen  of  the  intestine  between 
these  ligatures,  while  105  c.  c.  of  60  per  cent,  alcohol  were  intro- 
duced into  the  intestine  beyond  the  second  ligature.     Then 
Introduced  200  c.  c.  water  into  stomach  at  10.45  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  2.30  P.  M.  =  3f  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  260  c.  c.  ^=  130  per  cent, 
of  original  volume. 

Analysis  of  stomach  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.241  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.213 

Loosely  combined  HCl  .     .     .  0.002 

Salts 0.026 

XII.   28   V.    1897.     Bitch.     Weight   28   kilos.     Intestine   ligatured   just 
beyond   the   pylorus.     Another    ligature  was   applied   below  the 
point  of  entrance  of  the  duct  of  Wirsung.     125  c.  e.  of  60  per 
cent,  alcohol  were  injected   into  the  lumen  of  the  intestine  below 
the  second  ligature.'     Then 
Introduced  200  c.  c.  water  into  stomach  at  11  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  2.45  P.  M.  ^  3|  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  375  c.  c.  ^=  187.5  per  cent, 
of  original  volume. 

'  Cf.  Tiedemann  and  Gmelin,  Die  Verdauung  nach  Versiichen,  1831, 
p.  95  ;  Schiff,  Lefons  sur  la  physiologie  de  la  digestion,  ii.  244. 

^  The  return  of  alcoholic  fluid  into  the  stomacb  was  thus  absolutely  pre- 
vented. 


DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION. 

Analysis  of  stomach  conteuts  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.333  per  cent. 

FreeHCl 0.306 

Loosely  coinbiued  HCl  .     .     .     0.004 

Salts 0.023 

Total  solids 0.30 

Summary  of  Results  of  Experiments. 


273 


No. 

Relative  volume  of 
fluid  at  end  of 
experiment. 

Total 
acidity. 

Loosely 

combiued 

HCl. 

Free 
HCl. 

Salts. 

Total 
solids. 

XI 

xn 

130.0 
187.5 

0.241 
0.333 

0.002 

0.004 

0.213 
0.306 

0.026 
0.023 

0.30 

Average. 

158.5 

0.287 

0.003 

0.259 

0.024 

0.30 

From  these  data  it  seems  clear  that  a  stimulation  of  the  gastric 
glands  may  take  jjlace,  independently  of  any  direct  gastric  irri- 
tation, in  consequence  of  the  influence  of  alcohol  absorbed  from 
the  intestine.  The  volume  of  the  fluid  in  the  stomach  increased 
relatively  far  more  than  when  five  per  cent,  alcohol  was  intro- 
duced directly  into  the  stomach  (cf.  Experiments  IX.,  X.,  pages 
269,  270).  The  composition  of  the  fluid  (high  acidity,  free 
HCl,  total  solids)  likewise  gives  evidence  of  active  secretion, 
while  the  fluid  was  found  to  be  strongly  proteolytic.  The  ab- 
sorption of  the  alcohol  was  complete  in  these  experiments ;  and 
when  it  is  remembered  how  quickly  alcohol  is  distributed  and 
disappears  in  the  body,  the  actual  amount  reaching  the  gastric 
glands  must  have  been  relatively  small,  or  at  least  must  have 
acted  during  a  brief  period  only.  It  seems  probable,  there- 
fore, that  there  occurs  here  an  indirect  stimulation  quite  com- 
parable to  that  resulting  after  absorption  of  peptone  from  the 
alimentary  tract,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  by  way  of  com- 
parison that  Khigine,!  in  his  experiments  upon  the  isolated 
fundus  of  the  dog,  found  that  the  acidity  of  the  secretion  after 
absorption  of  digestion  products  runs  parallel  to  a  certain  degree 
with  the  increase  in  volume.  Whether  the  absorbed  alcohol 
acts  directly  upon  elements  of  the  gastric  mucosa  (Heiden- 
hain's  "  secondary  secretion  "),  or  becomes  a  stimulus  to  spe- 

>  Khigine,  Archives  des  sciences  biologiques,  St.  Petersbourg,  1895,  iii. 
461. 


274  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM 

cific  secretory  nerve  fibres  (Khigine),  we  are  unable  at  present 
to  decide.' 

In  connection  with  this  "  secondary "  secretion  of  gastric 
juice  due  to  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  small  intestine,  it  is 
to  be  noted  that  Macfadyen,  Nencki,  and  Sieber^  found  among 
the  bacteria  normally  present  in  this  portion  of  the  alimentary 
canal  species  which  give  rise  to  a  production  of  ethyl  alcohol 
from  carbohydrates  ingested. 

Experiments  -with  Alcoholic  Beverages. 
It  might  naturally  be  assumed  that  the  action  of  the  various 
alcoholic  beverages  on  gastric  secretion  would  be  similar,  quali- 
tatively, to  that  of  their  common  constituent,  ethyl  alcohol. 
Previous  investigation,  however,  has  shown  that  the  influence  of 
these  liquors  on  the  purely  chemical  processes  of  digestion  is 
not  necessarily  proportionate  to  their  content  of  alcohol ;  ^  hence 
it  seemed  desirable  to  study  the  effect  of  a  number  of  typical 
liquors  on  secretion,  by  the  method  of  the  previous  experi- 
ments.    This  we  have  done  with  the  following  results :  — 

XIII.  21  vi.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  10.7  kilos. 

Introduced  50  c.  c.  sherry  -\-  2.5  c.  c.  water  (14  per  cent,  alco- 
hol) at  10.20  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  2.15  P.  M.  =  3^^  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  160  c.  c.  =:  213  per  cent, 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  stomach  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.367  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.300 

Loosely  combined  HCl     .     .  0.020 

Salts 0.047 

Total  solids 1.72 

XIV.  2  vi.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  18.5  kilos. 

Introduced  50  c.  c.  whiskey  -\- 100  c.  c.  water  (16  per  cent,  al- 
cohol) at  11.15  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  3  p.  M.  =  3|  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  ^320  c.  c.:=213  per  cent, 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  stomach  contents  gave  : 

1  Cf.  Howell,  American  Text-Book  of  Physiology,  1896,  p.  182. 
''  Macfadyen,  Nencki,  and  Sieber,  Archiv  f.  experimentelle  Pathologie  und 
Pharmakologie,  1891,  xxviii.  311. 
'"  Chittenden  and  Mendel,  loc.  cit. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  275 

Total  acidity 0.382  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.346 

Loosely  combined  HCl     .     .  0.011 

Salts 0.025 

Total  solids 0.42 

XV.   3  vi.  1897.     Bitch.     Weight  8  kilos. 

Introduced  125  c.  c.  hochheimer  (13.3  per  cent,  alcohol)  at 

10  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  1.43  P.  M.  =  3}  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  140  c.  c.  =  112  per  cent, 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  stomach  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.230  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.165 

Loosely  combined  HCl     .     .  0.038 

Salts 0.027 

XVI.   28  vi.  1897.    Dog.    Weight  23  kilos.     Gastric  fistula  well  healed. 
Contrast  experiment  with  water  and  wine. 
a.  The  first  part  of  this  experiment  has  been  described  under  II., 

page  267. 
$.   After  complete  discharge  of  previous  stomach  contents  through 
the  fistula,  135  c.  c.  w^hite  wine  were  introduced  into  stomach 
through  fistula  at  1.45  p.  m. 
Contents  removed  at  4.30  p.  M.  :=  2|  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  ^  170  c.  c.  =  126  per  cent, 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  stomach  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.425  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.342 

Loosely  combined  HCl     .     .  0.018 

Salts 0.005 

Total  solids 1.79 

XVII.   23  vi.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  12.3  kilos. 

Introduced  125  c.  c.  claret  (5.15  per  cent,  alcohol)  at  9.30  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  1.30  p.  M.  =  4  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  r=  225  c.  c.  =  180  per  cent, 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  stomach  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.373  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.324 

Loosely  combined  HCl     .     .  0.025 

Salts 0.024 

Total  solids 1.90 


276  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

XVIIl.    18  vi.  1897.     Bitch.     Weight  10.2  kilos. 

Introduced  100  c.  c.  lager  beer  (4  to  5  per  cent,  alcohol)  at 

10.20  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  2.15  P.  M.  =  Z\l  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  110  c.  c.  =:  110  per  cent, 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  stomach  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.357  per  cent. 

FreeHCl 0.241 

Loosely  combined  HCl     .     .     0.064 

Salts 0.052 

Total  solids 9.26 

XIX.   23  vi.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  10  kilos. 

Introduced  100  c.  c.  lager  beer  (4.5  per  cent,  alcohol)  at  10.10 

A.  M. 

Contents  removed  at  2  p.  M.  =  3|  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  125  c.  c.  =  125  per  cent. 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  stomach  contents  gave  :  — 

Total  acidity 0.241  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.169 

Loosely  combined  HCl     .     .  0.032 

Salts 0.040 

Total  solids 5.51 

XX.    14  vi.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  14  kilos. 

Introduced  150  c.  c.  porter  (3.75  per  cent,  alcohol)  at  9.45  A.  M. 

Contents  removed  at  1.30  p.  M.  =  3|  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  195  c.  c.  =:  127  per  cent, 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  stomach  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.371  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.320 

Loosely  combined  HCl  .     .     .     0.036 

Salts 0.015 

Total  solids 2.19 

XXI.    7  vi.  1897.     Bitch.     Weight  8.5  kilos. 

Introduced    125   c.  c.  lager  beer  (4.7  per   cent,   alcohol)  at 

10.15  A.  M. 
Contents  removed  at  2.10  p.  M.  ^  31^  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  285  c.  c.  ::=  228  per  cent. 
original  volume. 


DIGESTIOX  AND  SECRETION.  277 

Analysis  of  stomach  coutents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.378  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.308 

Loosely  combined  HCl  .     .     .     0.016 

Salts 0.054 

Total  solids 2.88 

XXII.   14  vi.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  8.2  kilos. 

Introduced  150  c.  c.  porter  residue  '  at  11.30  a.m. 
Contents  removed  at  3.15  P.  m.  =  3|  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  135  c.  c.  =  90  per  cent, 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  stomach  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.352  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.280 

Loosely  combined  HCl  .     .     .  0.014 

Salts 0.058 

Total  solids 2.29 

XXin.   9vi.  1897.     Dog.     Weight  10  kilos. 

Introduced  130  c.  c.  lager  beer  residue  -  at  10.30  a.  m. 
Contents  removed  at  2.30  P.  M.  =^  4  hours. 
Volume  of  fluid  recovered  from  stomach  =  175  c.  c.  =  134  per  cent, 
original  volume. 

Analysis  of  stomach  contents  gave  : 

Total  acidity 0.346  per  cent. 

Free  HCl 0.270 

Loosely  combined  HCl  .     .     .  0.038 

Salts 0.038 

Total  solids 6.80 

For  the  sake  of  comparison  these  data  are  contrasted  in  the 
following  table :  — 

'  The  residue  left  on  evaporation  of  150  c.  c.  porter,  dissolved  in  150  c.  c. 
distilled  water. 
-  Residue  from  evaporation  of  130  c.  c.  beer,  dissolved  in  130  c.  c.  water. 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Relative 
vol.  of  fluid 
ateud  of  ex- 

Total 
acidity. 

Loosely 

combined 

HCl. 

Free 
HCl. 

Salts. 

Total 
solids. 

periment. 

XIV.  Whiskey +  H2O  . 

213 

0.382 

0.011 

0.346 

0.025 

0.42 

(16 ';^,  alcohol) 

XIII.  Sherry  +  H^O      . 

213 

0.367 

0.020 

0.300 

0.047 

1.72 

(13f/p  alcohol) 

XV.  White  wiue  .     .     . 

112 

0.230 

0.038 

0.165 

0.027 

_ 

(13%  alcohol) 

XVI.  White  wine  .     .     . 

126 

0.425 

0.018 

0.342 

0.065 

1.79 

(13<%  alcohol) 

XVII.  Claret      ,     .     .     . 

180 

0.373 

0.025 

0.324 

0.024 

1.90 

(10^  alcohol) 

XVIII.  Beer 

110 

0.357 

0.064 

0.241 

0.052 

9.26 

(4.7  <5^  alcohol) 

XIX.  Beer 

125 

0.241 

0.032 

0.169 

0.040 

5.51 

(4c^  alcohol) 

XXI.  Beer 

228 

0.378 

0.016 

0.308 

0.054 

2.88 

(i.Tc-/^  alcohol) 

XXIII.  Residue  of  beer    . 

134 

0.346 

0.038 

0.270 

0.038 

6.80 

(like  XXI.) 

XX.  Porter      .... 

127 

0.371 

0.036 

0.320 

0.015 

2.19 

(5.3%  alcohol) 

XXII.  Residue  of  porter 

90 

0.352 

0.014 

0.280 

0.058 

2.29 

(like  XX.) 

These  results  afford  tangible  evidence  of  tlie  stimulating 
action  of  the  liquors  examined,  as  shown  in  the  increased 
volume  of  gastric  contents,  accompanied  by  increase  in  acidity. 
That  alcohol  is  an  important  factor  in  the  production  of  these 
phenomena  seems  certain.  Contrast,  for  example,  Experiment 
XX.  with  XXII.,  which  differs  only  in  the  absence  of  the  alco- 
hol. But  the  wines  and  malted  beverages  contain  a  variety  of 
other  constituents,  such  as  organic  acids,  which  perhaps  con- 
tribute to  increase  the  stimulating  effect  and  are  doubtless 
partly  responsible  in  a  number  of  experiments  for  the  high 
acidity  observed.  The  contrast  between  the  action  of  water 
and  wine  is  strikingly  shown  in  Experiments  XVI.  a  and  /?, 
carried  out  on  the  same  animal. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  279 

Comparison  of  the  Two  Experiments  (XVI.  o,  0). 


Fluid  introduced 
into  Btomach. 

Fluid  removed 
from  stomach 
after  3  hours. 

Relative 
volume, 
per  cent. 

Total 

acidity. 

Free 
HCl. 

Loosely 

combined 

HCl. 

Salts. 

Total 
Bolids. 

135  c.  c.  water 

135  c.  c.  white 

wine    .     .     . 

110  c.  c. 
170  c.  c. 

81 
126 

0.274 
0.425 

0.241 

0.342 

0.018 

0.018 

0.015 
0.065 

0.77 
1.79 

The  marked  increase  in  total  solids  in  many  of  these  experi- 
ments, however,  is  not  to  be  attributed,  as  in  the  case  of  pure 
alcohol,  entirely  to  the  increased  secretion ;  it  is  rather  in  part 
accounted  for  by  the  unabsorbed  constituents  of  the  liquor 
employed.  The  following  table,  compiled  from  analyses  at 
hand,  shows  that  a  large  portion  of  the  total  solids  in  the  gastric 
juices  obtained  may  be  derived  from  other  sources  than  the 
secretion  itself :  — 

T.'VBLE   SHOWING   TOTAL   SoLIDS    OF   GaSTRIC   CONTENTS. 


Nature  of  fluid  introduced 

Total  solids  introduced 

Total  solids  in  gastric 

into  stomach. 

into  Btomach. 

experiment. 

II. 

Water 

0      grams. 

0.84  grams. 

IX. 

Weak  alcohol 

0 

0.69       " 

VIII. 

Strong  alcohol     . 

0 

4.50      " 

XIV. 

Whiskey    .     .     . 

0.15     " 

1.34      " 

XVI. 

White  wine 

2.8      " 

2.41      " 

XVII. 

Claret    .     . 

3.9      " 

4.28      " 

XIII. 

Sherry  .     . 

2.35    « 

2.78      " 

XVIII. 

Beer      .     . 

7.0      " 

10.00      " 

XXIII. 

Beer  residue 

9.1      " 

11.56      " 

XX. 

Porter   .     . 

6.6      " 

4.16      " 

XXII. 

Porter  residue     . 

6.6      " 

3.10      " 

Character  of  the  Gastric   Juice   obtained    by  Stimulation  with 
Alcohol. 

The  gastric  juice  obtained  as  a  result  of  the  stimulating 
influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  liquors  resembles  that  ordi- 
narily procured  from  gastric  fistulje  in  its  physical  characters ; 
it  is  a  thin,  colorless,  or  very  faintly  yellow  fluid  containing 
occasional  flocks  of  mucus  in  suspension.  There  was  no  evi- 
dence of  irritation  or  hyperaemia  of  the  mucosa,  and  all  traces 
of  blood  were  absent.  After  the  doses  used  the  gastric  lining 
was  of  a  pale  or  faintly  pink  color  when  removed  after  bleeding 


280  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

the  animal.  When  colored  alcoholic  liquors  were  employed 
the  gastric  contents  retained  the  characteristic  coloring  matter, 
the  latter  not  being  absorbed,  while  the  alcohol  entirely  disap- 
peared. In  chemical  composition  the  gasti'ic  juice  appeared 
somewhat  more  acid  than  that  ordinarily  secreted.  It  likewise 
contained  a  larger  amount  of  solid  matter,  and  in  harmony  with 
this  fact  the  proportion  of  combined  hydrochloric  acid  was 
increased,  which  in  turn  suggests  the  presence  of  a  somewhat 
larger  amount  of  proteid  or  other  like  matter.  The  fluids  were 
repeatedly  tested  with  boiled  fibrin  for  proteolytic  action,  and 
this  was  always  found  vigorous.  In  the  experiments  in  which 
alcohol  was  introduced  directly  into  the  intestines  (Experi- 
ments XI.,  XII.,  page  272)  the  intestinal  lining  was  not  abnor- 
mal in  appearance,  the  reaction  being  alkaline  to  litmus  in  the 
upper  duodenum  and  neutral  or  faintly  alkaline  farther  along 
the  alimentary  canal.  This  corresponds  with  the  observations 
on  the  normal  reaction  of  the  intestinal  contents  of  the  dog,  by 
Moore  and  Rockwood,i  whose  statements  we  have  repeatedly 
verified. 

C.     GASTRIC    DIGESTION. 

Since  chemical,  mechanical,  and  physiological  processes  go 
on  side  by  side  during  digestion,  we  have  carried  out  a  series 
of  experiments  to  determine  in  what  way  and  to  what  extent 
the  factors  already  investigated  combine  or  cooperate  under  the 
influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  liquors.  Our  method  has  in- 
cluded the  examination  of  the  stomach  contents  after  test  meals 
were  given.  The  statements  current  in  the  literature  on  this 
subject  are  by  no  means  concordant. 

In  experiments  on  a  woman  having  a  gastric  fistula  Kretschy  ^ 
observed  that  alcohol  retarded  digestion.  Buchner  ^  found  that 
in  the  human  stomach  alcohol,  wine,  and  beer  all  retarded  di- 
gestion, though  not  so  markedly  as  in  artificial  digestion. 
Bikfalvi,*  in  observations  on  dogs,  obtained  a  retardation  of  di- 
gestion with  even  small  quantities  of  alcohol.     Beer  and  wine 

^  Moore  and  Rockwood,  Journal  of  Physiology,  1897,  xxi.  373. 

^  Kretschy,  Deutsches  Arch.f.  klin.  Med.,  xviii.  527  ;  Jahresbericht  f. 
Thierchemie,  1876,  vi.  173. 

^  Buchner,  Deutsches  Arch.  f.  klin.  Med.,  xxix.  537  ;  Jahresbericht  f. 
Thierchemie,  1881,  xi.  286. 

■•  Bikfalvi,  Jahresbericht  f.  Thierchemie,  1885,  xv.  273. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  281 

showed  no  favorable  influence,  the  latter  even  retarding  di- 
gestion when  given  in  large  quantities.  Ogata  ^  states  that 
beer,  wine,  and  brandy  retard  gastric  digestion  noticeably. 
Schelhaas^  observed  that  in  the  living  stomach  wine  did  not 
retard  digestion  so  long  as  there  was  free  HCl  present ;  patho- 
logical conditions  (carcinoma  ventriculi)  formed  the  only  ex- 
ceptions. In  an  extensive  series  of  experiments  Gluzinski^ 
distinguishes  two  phases  occurring  during  digestion  in  the 
stomach  in  the  presence  of  alcohol :  (1)  a  retardation  of  pro- 
teid  digestion,  and  (2)  secretion  of  a  very  active,  strongly  acid 
gastric  juice.  Henczinski  ■*  found  no  bad  effect  on  digestion 
following  the  use  of  beer.  Blumenau  ^  states  that  from  twenty- 
five  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  alcohol  introduced  into  the  healthy 
stomach  induces  a  decrease  in  digestive  action  during  the  first 
two  or  three  hours.  Wolffhardt,^  experimenting  on  a  healthy 
man,  concluded  that  from  fifteen  to  twenty  grams  of  absolute 
alcohol  interfere  with  proteid  digestion,  while  the  effect  of 
cognac  varies  with  the  period  of  digestion  during  which  it  is 
taken  ;  he  found  that  wines  tend  to  promote  digestion. 

AYith  reference  to  the  motor  functions  of  the  stomach  Lauder 
Brunton  states  that  alcohol  taken  into  this  organ  increases  its 
movements  as  well  as  its  secretory  activity,  and  by  mixing  its 
contents  more  thoroughly  with  the  gastric  juice  accelerates 
digestion.^  Likewise  Klempei-er*  states  as  a  result  of  his  ex- 
periments that  the  motor  functions  are  decidedly  increased  as 
measured  by  the  oil  method,  while  Haan  ®  has  more  recently  ad- 

1  Ogilta,  Jahreshericht  f.  Thierchemie,  1885,  xv.  274  ;  Arch.  f.  Hygiene, 
1886,  iii.  204. 

'  Schelhaas,  DeutscJtcs  Arch.  f.  klin.  Med.,  xxxvi.  427  ;  Jahreshericht  f. 
Thierchemie,  1885,  xv.  271. 

'  Gliiziuski,  Deutsckes  A  rch.  f.  klin.  Med.,  1886,  xxxix.  405  ;  Jahreshericht 
f.  Thierchemie,  1886,  xvi.  263. 

*  Henczinski,  Dissertation,  1886.  Quoted  by  Munk,  Die  Erncihrung,  p. 
327. 

"  Blumenau,  Therapeutische  Monatshefte,  1890,  v.  504  ;  Jahreshericht  f. 
Thierchemie,  1891,  xxi.  212. 

'  Wol£Ehardt,  Munchn.  med.  Wochenschr.,  1890,  xxxvii.  608  ;  Centralbl.  f. 
med.  Wissen.,  1891,  p.  47. 

'  Brunton,  Disorders  of  Digestion,  1886,  p.  146. 

'  Kleinperer,  Zeitschr.  f.  klin.  Med.,  1890,  xvii.  Supp.,  p.  324  ;  Centralbl. 
f.  med.  Wissen.,  1891,  p.  751. 

'  Haan,  Comptes  rendus  de  la  societe  de  biologic,  1895,  ii.  816. 


282  THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

vanced  similar  conclusions  as  the  result  of  work  by  another 
method.  Gluziuski,^  however,  notes  that  alcohol  diminishes 
the  mechanical  action  of  the  stomach  in  moderate  degree. 

In  considering  the  selection  of  subjects  for  experiment  in  the 
direction  indicated,  preference  has  been  given  to  dogs.  The 
series  of  investigations  on  man  above  referred  to  are  already 
extensive,  and  the  difficulties  of  obtaining  definite  answers  to 
specific  questions  by  this  method  of  experimentation  are  obvious. 
It  is  rarely  possible  or  desirable  to  carry  out  a  large  number 
of  determinations  on  any  single  individual,  while  it  is  likewise 
practically  impossible  to  control  the  physiological  condition  of 
the  individual,  i.  e.,  diet,  etc.,  over  prolonged  periods.  The 
animals  used  in  this  research  were  large  dogs  of  twenty-one  and 
twenty-five  kilos  ;  gastric  fistulse  were  made,  and  a  German- 
silver  cannula  introduced 
into  the  fundus  of  the 
stomach.  In  place  of  a 
cork,  metal  stoppers  were 
devised  to  screw  into  the 
inner  cannula  tube  by 
means  of  a  small  metallic 
key.  The  arrangement  is  shown  in  the  diagram.  The  wounds 
healed  perfectly  and  the  animals  remained  in  good  health  dur- 
ing the  entire  period  of  investigation,  covering  several  months. 
Irregularities  of  diet  were  avoided  by  feeding  definite  portions 
of  prepared  dog  biscuit  with  water  ;  this  food  was  eagerly  eaten 
and  sufficed  to  keep  the  dogs  in  physiological  equilibrium. 

The  determinations  of  the  acidity  of  the  stomach  contents 
were  carried  out  according  to  the  method  of  Tijpfer.^  The 
gastric  fluid  was  occasionally  centrifngalized  when  food  par- 
ticles prevented  pipetting  off  the  fluid  portion.  Where  only 
small  quantities  of  fluid  were  available  the  titrations  with 
phenolphthalien  and  dimethylamidoazobenzol  were  combined  in 
the  same  five  c.  c.  of  fluid,  according  to  the  recommendation  of 
Einhorn.^  Comparative  expei-iments  show  that  this  modifica- 
tion gives  the  same  values  as  the  original  method.  Thus  in  one 
experiment :  — 

1  Gluzinski,  loc.  cit. 

2  Topfer,  Zeilschr.  f.  physinl.  Chemie,  1894,  xi.t.  104. 

»  Einhorn,  New  York  Medical  Journal,  1896,  May  9,  p.  603. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


283 


Topfer  method     .     .     . 
(separate  titrations) 


Einhorn-Topfer  method 
(combined  titration) 


Total  acidity  with 
Phenotphthaiien. 


N 
1.55  c.  c.  jTjNaOH 

=  0.112  per  cent.  HCl. 

1.55  c.  c.  ^NaOH 
=  0.112  percent  HCl. 


Free  HCl  with 
Dimethylamidoazobemol. 


\l.Q  c.  c.  j^NaOH 
^=0.072  percent.  HCl. 

(l.O  c.  c.  ^NaOH 
I  =0.072  per  cent.  HCl. 


Our  experience  with  Tbpfer's  method  (or  Einhorn's  modifi- 
cation) leads  us  to  agree  with  P.  Hiiri  ^  that  in  the  absence  of 
free  HCl,  i.  e.,  when  no  reaction  is  obtained  with  the  dimeth- 
ylamidoazobenzol  reagent,  the  quantitative  determinations  of 
HCl  by  this  method  cease  to  be  accurate,  and  under  such  con- 
ditions it  cannot  be  employed.  The  occurrence  of  such  con- 
ditions, however,  is  not  frequent  in  the  dog  ;  we  have  observed 
the  absence  of  free  HCl  (during  digestion)  in  one  animal 
under  circumstances  resembling  those  of  acute  gastric  catarrh.^ 
The  food  —  dog  biscuit  —  was  largely  undigested  many  hours 
after  the  meal,  the  acidity  was  high  (0.55  to  0.594  per  cent, 
expressed  as  HCl),  and  the  gastric  contents  possessed  an  odor 
strongly  suggesting  fatty  acids.  Lactic  acid  was  found  present 
(Uffelman's  test). 

In  view  of  the  increased  volume  of  fluid  found  in  the  stomach 
when  alcohol  is  introduced  into  that  organ  after  ligation  of  the 
pylorus,  it  was  of  interest  to  learn  what  results  follow  under 
normal  conditions  of  the  pylorus.  For  this  purpose  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  alcohol,  slightly  warmed,  was 
introduced  through  the  gastric  cannula,  and  at  the  end  of 
thirty  minutes  the  gastric  contents  were  discharged  into  a 
graduated  vessel.  Control  experiments  were  made  with  dis- 
tilled water,  both  fluids  always  being  introduced  into  the  empty 
stomach.  This  condition  of  the  organ  is  shown  by  the  lack  of 
spontaneous  flow  when  the  cannula  is  opened,  as  well  as  by  ab- 

1  Hiiri,  p.,  Arch.  f.  Verdauungskrankh.,  ii.  182,  332  ;  Centralhl.  f.  Physi- 
ologic, 1896,  X.  731. 

"  Cf.  V.  Jaksch,  Klinische  Diagnostik  innerer  Krankheiten,  4te  Auflage,  p. 
200. 


284  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

sence  of  free  HCl.  Flocks  of  mucus,  alkaline  to  litmus,  are 
usually  present.  The  data  obtained  show  no  marked  agree- 
ment, the  fluid  as  a  rule  rapidly  disappearing  from  the  stomach. 
In  seventeen  experiments  with  water  the  average  relative  vol- 
ume recovered  from  the  stomach  through  the  cannula  at  the 
end  of  the  thirty  minutes  after  introduction  of  quantities  from 
40  to  200  c.  c.  was  about  thirty  per  cent.  Fourteen  similar 
experiments  with  alcohol  gave  an  average  of  forty-five  per  cent. 
It  is  natural  to  ascribe  the  relatively  greater  volumes  found  in 
the  stomach  after  the  use  of  alcohol  to  an  increased  secretion  of 
gastric  juice  occurring  along  with  the  rapid  expulsion  of  fluid 
through  the  pylorus,  and  not  to  a  retardation  of  the  motor  func- 
tions ;  for  current  statements  assume  increased  motility  of  the 
stomach  under  the  influence  of  alcohol,^  while  the  experiments 
already  reported  justify  the  explanation  given.  Much  emphasis 
cannot,  however,  be  placed  upon  the  averages  given  above, 
since  the  individual  results  vary  widely  among  themselves  and 
no  constant  coi-responding  variations  in  acidity  were  observed, 
as  in  the  experiments  with  ligated  pylorus. 

In  the  following  series  of  experiments  test  meals  were  given 
and  the  influence  of  alcohol  and  a  considerable  number  of  alco- 
holic beverages  contrasted  with  that  of  water.  Attention  was 
directed  to  (1)  variations  in  acidity  and  (2)  time  of  digestion. 
Fifty  grams  of  finely  chopped  lean  meat  were  fed  to  the  dog  in 
each  experiment,  the  stomach  having  been  previously  examined 
and  found  empty.  Meat  was  chosen  for  the  test  meal  because 
experience  in  this  laboratory  has  shown  that  its  composition, 
when  it  is  obtained  as  described,  does  not  vary  much  from  time 
to  time ;  and  after  a  trial  of  mixed  food,  e.  g.,  dog  biscuit,  it 
seemed  more  satisfactory  to  employ  a  simple  diet  in  which 
proteid  preponderated.  Similar  recommendation  is  made  by 
v.  Jaksch  in  considering  test  meals  for  the  human  subject.^ 
Alcoholic  fluids  or  water  were  introduced  slightly  warmed  ^  into 
the  stomach  through  the  fistula,  since  dogs  usually  refuse  to 
take  the  former  by  way  of  the  mouth.  At  definite  intervals 
of  one  quarter  to  one  half  hour  small  quantities  of  gastric  con- 
tents were  permitted  to  flow  out  of  the  fistula.     Total  acidity 

1  Cf.  references,  pp.  280,  281.  ^  v.  Jaksch,  loc.  cit.,  p.  192. 

8  Cf.  note  3,  p.  266. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


285 


(expressed  as  HCl),  free  and  loosely  combined  HCl  were 
determined  by  the  method  already  described.  The  process  of 
digestion  in  the  stomach  lasted,  under  the  conditions  described, 
about  tliree  hours,  the  average  duration  varying  somewhat  with 
the  animal.^  There  was  no  very  gradual  diminution  of  undis- 
solved meat  particles  noticeable  until  toward  the  end  of  this 
period,  when  the  stomach  very  soon  became  empty.  This  cor- 
responds with  the  observations  of  Kiihne  on  man  and  the  dog 
in  experiments  with  duodenal  fistulas.^  This  investigator  found 
only  a  slight  disappearance  of  contents  from  the  stomach  until 
near  the  end  of  the  digestion  period,  when  the  great  bulk  of 
material,  excepting  larger  pieces  of  food,  was  discharged  at 
once  through  the  pylorus.  Richet  arrived  at  similar  conclu- 
sions in  experiments  on  man.^  We  have  usually  observed  a 
complete  emptying  of  the  stomach  within  a  period  of  thirty 
minutes  ;  the  conclusion  of  this  process  is  designated  in  the 
notes  as  the  "  end  of  gastric  digestion."  Protocols  of  experi- 
ments follow :  — 

Analyses  of  Alcoholic  Beverages  used. 


Alcohol  by 

Dry  solids. 

Alcohol  by 

Dry  solids. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Gin      .... 

51.0 

0.29 

Stout  .... 

6.2 

5.4 

Whiskey .     .     . 

50.0 

0.32 

Claret      .     .     . 

5.2 

3.2 

Sherry     .     .     . 

21.75 

4.7 

Porter      .     .     . 

5.3 

4.4 

White  wine  .     . 

13.32 

2.5 

Beer    .... 

4r-5 

7.0 

DOG  A.- 

Weight 

25  kilos. 

9.25  A.  M. 

50  grams  meat  (no  water). 

Analy 

sis  of  contents. 

Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl 

9.55 

0.382 

0.292 

0.104 

10.35 

0.425 

0.234 

0.148 

11.10 

0.425 

0.220 

0.180 

11.45 

0.407 

0.224 

0.176 

12.15     Stomach  empty;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  =  2  hours  and  55  minutes. 

1  In  experiments  on  a  man,  with  a  similar  meal,  Jessen  found  the  diges- 
tion time  equaled  two  to  three  hours.     Zeitschr.  f.  Biologic,  1883,  xix.  149. 

2  Kiihne,  Lehrhuch  der  physiol.  Chemie,  1868,  p.  53. 

5  Richet,  quoted  in  Garagee,  Physiological  Chemistry,  1893,  ii.  159. 


THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 


III. 


9.10  A. 

M.   ; 

50  grams  meat  ■ 

fs 

0  c.  c 

Anal; 

1.  water. 

^■His  of  contents. 

Total  acidity. 

Looselj 

r  combined  HCL 

Free  HCl. 

9.30 

0.241 

0.144 

0.093 

10.00 

0.295 

0.1C9 

0.108 

10.20 

0.367 

0.216 

0.115 

10.40 

0.439 

0.288 

0.144 

11.30 

Stomach  empty;  end  of 

gastric  digestlou. 

TimE 

!  of  digestion  = 

:  2  hours 

and  20  minutes, 

9.30.1 

L.    M. 

50  grams  meat 

+  : 

100  c. 

0.  water. 

Analysis  of  couteutB. 

Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combiued  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

10.00 

0.299 

0.173 

0.090 

10.30 

0.475 

0.230 

0.122 

11.00 

0.518 

0.230 

0.173 

11.15 

0.497 

0.202 

0.241 

11.35 

0.494 

0.191 

0.202 

11.50 

0.479 

0.205 

0.195 

12.10 

0.382 

0.194 

0.187 

12.30 

Stomach  empty;  end  of 

gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  =  3  hours. 
IV.   2.10  P.  M.     50  grams  meat  -j-  150  c.  c.  water. 


Analysis  of  conteuta. 

Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combiued  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

2.40 

0.252 

0.137 

0.108 

3.10 

0.374 

0.194 

0.130 

3.40 

0.533 

0.245 

0.198 

3.55 

0.547 

0.234 

0.234 

4.10 

0.490 

0.205 

0.216 

4.25 

0.385 

- 

0.101 

4.40     Stomach  empty ;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  =  2  hours  and  30  minutes. 

V.    9.05  a.m.     50  grams  meat -{- 150  c.  c.  carbonated  V7ater. 

Analysis  of  contents. 
Total  acidity.  Loosely  combined  HCl.  Free  HCl. 

9.35  0.263                       0.083  0.122 

10.05  0.360                       0.158  0.140 

10.35  0.468                       0.194  0.216 

10.50  0.486                       0.205  0.216 

11.05  0.540                       0.234  0.198 

11.25  0.580                       0.234  0.248 

11.45  Stomach  empty;   end  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  ^  2  hours  and  40  minutes. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  287 

VI.    1.00  p.  M.     50  grams  meat  -{-  100  c.  c.  10  per  cent,  alcohol. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

2.45 

0.497 

0.209 

0.230 

3.10 

0.464 

0.220 

0.173 

3.30 

0.436 

0.180 

0.202 

3.50 

0.400 

0.162 

0.202 

4.10 

0.263 

- 

0.094 

4.30     Stomach  empty;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  ::=  3  hours  and  30  minutes. 

VII.   2.30  p.m.     50  grams  meat -j- 50  c.  c.  20  per  cent,  alcohol. 

Analysis  of  contents. 
Total  acidity. 

3.00 
3.30 
4.00 
4.30 
5.00 
5.30 

5.30     Stomach  nearly  empty  ;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 
Time  of  digestion  =  3  hours. 

VIII.  12.45  P.  M.     50  grams  meat  -(-  50  c.  c.  20  per  cent,  alcohol. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combiued  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

0.313 

0.118 

0.090 

0.374 

0.187 

0.176 

0.439 

0.194 

0.151 

0.515 

0.205 

0.184 

0.407 

0.144 

0.248 

0.264 

- 

0.155 

Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

2.30 

0.439 

0.213 

0.158 

2.50 

0.457 

0.191 

0.205 

3.10 

0.403 

0.205 

0.227 

3.30 

0.3G4 

0.129 

0.187 

3.50     Stomach  practically  empty;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 
Time  of  digestion  =  3  hours  and  5  minutes. 

IX.    9.15  A.  M.     50  grams  meat  -\-  50  c.  c.  30  per  cent,  alcohol. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

9.40 

0.191 

0.130 

0.058 

10.05 

0.335 

0.155 

0.151 

10.30 

0.421 

0.176 

0.180 

10.50 

0.468 

0.184 

0.201 

11.10 

0.4G0 

0.165 

0.220 

11.30 

0.410 

0.148 

0.220 

11.50 

0.468 

0.195 

0.244 

12.10, 

0.417 

0.112 

0.240 

12.30 

0.360 

0.086 

0.216 

1.00 

Stomach  empty;  end  of 

gastric  digestion. 

J  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

X.    9.00  A.  M.     50  grams  meat -j- 150  c.  c.  hochlieuner. 


Analyeis  of  contents. 

Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combiiied  HCl. 

Pree  HCl. 

9.30 

0.374 

0.140 

0.176 

10.00 

0.432 

0.154 

0.191 

10.15 

0.450 

0.151 

0.198 

10.45 

0.497 

0.187 

0.220 

11.15 

0.533 

0.198 

0.271 

11.30 

0.555 

0.241 

0.227 

12.00 

0.508 

0.248 

0.173 

12.15     Stomach  empty;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  =  3  hours  and  15  minutes. 

XI.   9.00  a.m.    60  grams  meat -|- 50  c.  c.  whiskey  4-50  c.  c.  water. 


Analysis  of  contents. 

Total  acidity. 

TjOoeely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

9.30 

0.252 

0.101 

0.119 

10.00 

0.392 

0.176 

0.176 

10.30 

0.403 

0.151 

0.191 

11.00     Stomach  empty;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 
Time  of  digestion  ^=  2  hours. 


XII. 


2.45  p.  M. 

50  grams  meat 

+ 

50  c.  0.  whiskey -f! 

Analysis  of  coutenta. 

>0  c.  c.  wa 

Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

3.15 

0.230 

0.076 

0.119 

3.45 

0.320 

0.097 

0.220 

4.15 

0.468 

0.198 

0.212 

4.30 

0.508 

0.198 

0.198 

4.45 

0.490 

0.184 

0.212 

5.15 

0.569 

0.205 

0.252 

5.45     Stomach  empty;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 
Time  of  digestion  =  3  hours. 

XIII.   1.00  p.  M.     50  grams  meat  -j-  50  c.  c.  gin  -|-  25  c.  c.  water. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity.  Loosely  combined  HCl.  Free  HCl. 

2.00  0.439  0.173  0.194 

2.30  0.450  0.170  0.197 

2.45  0.428  0.158  0.238 

3.00  0.442  0.154  0.212 

3.15  0.410  0.140  0.215 

3.30  0.420  0.143  ,0.234 

3.45  0.338  0.122  0.180 

4.00     Stomach  empty;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 
Time  of  digestion  =  3  hours. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  2i 

XIV.    9.00  a.m.     50  grams  meat +  50  c.  c.  brandy +  25  c.c.  water 


Analysis  of  contents. 

9.50 

Total  acidity. 

0.237 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

0.159 

Free  HCl. 

0.065 

10.20 
10.50 
11.20 

0.368 
0.465 
0.533 

0.201 
0.230 
0.267 

0.133 
0.205 
0.194 

11.40 

0.468 

- 

0.158 

12.00     Stomach  empty;  end  of  gastric  tligestion. 

Time  of  dicrestion  =  2  hours  and  40  minutes. 


XV. 


2.50  p 

.  M. 

50 

grams  meat  + 150  c.  c.  lager  beer. 

Analysis  of  contents. 

Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCL 

3.20 

0.259 

0.112 

0.115 

3.50 

0.410 

0.205 

0.148 

4.20 

0.518 

0.245 

0.184 

4.35 

0.572 

0.248 

0.230 

4.50 

0.569 

0.252 

0.208 

6.05 

0.547 

0.220 

0.238 

5.20 

0.508 

0.162 

0.211 

5.35 

0.475 

0.162 

0.238 

5.50 

0.413 

0.115 

0.241 

6.05 

Stomach 

1  empty ;  end  of 

gastric  digestion. 

XVI.   9.40  A.  M.     50  grams  meat  -|- 150  c.  c.  stout. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

10.10 

0.304 

0.140 

0.187 

10.40 

0.446 

0.166 

0.180 

11.10 

0.555 

0.220 

0.295 

11.40 

0.616 

0.212 

0.302 

12.10 

0.580 

0.266 

0.247 

12.40     Stomach  empty;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 
Time  of  digestion  =  3  hours. 

XVII o.  9.15  A.M.     50  grams  meat +  150  c.  c.  beer. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity.  Loosely  combined  HCl.  Free  HCl. 

9.45  0.248  0.151  0.082 

10.15  0.367  0.201  0.123 

10.45  0.457  0.238  0.137 

11.20  0.526  0.266  0.209 

11.40  0.511  0.213  0.223 

12.15  0.465  0.216  0.176 

12.30     Stomach  empty,  end  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  ^  3  hours  and  15  minutes. 


290  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

XVlI/3.     3.00  r.  M.     50  grams  meat  -j- 150  c.  c.  water. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

3.30 

0.227 

0.130 

0.090 

4.00 

0.400 

0.209 

0.129 

4.30 

0.522 

0.274 

0.158 

5.00 

0.583 

0.310 

0.195 

5.15 

0.583 

0.302 

0.205 

5.30 

0.446 

0.209 

0.184 

6.45 

0.569 

0.^98 

0.127 

6.00     Stomach  empty  ;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 
Time  of  digestion  :=  3  hours. 

XVIIIo.   8.30  a.m.     50  grams  meat-)- 50  c.  o.  water. 

Analyeis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

9.00 

0.371 

0.227 

0.126 

9.30 

0.443 

0.274 

0.144 

10.00 

0.518 

0.252 

0.234 

10.30 

0.569 

0.263 

0.252 

11.00     Stomach  empty  ;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  ^2  hours  and  30  minutes. 

XVIIIiB.   2.10  P.  M.     50  grams  meat  -f  100  o.  o.  30  per  cent,  alcohol 


Analysis  of  contents. 

2.40 

Total  acidity. 
0.234 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

0.112 

Free  HCl. 
0.101 

3.10 
3.40 

0.352 
0.490 

0.165 
0.209 

0.137 

0.162 

4.10 
4.40 

0.550 
0.550 

0.263 
0.245 

0.191 
0.201 

5.10    Stomach  empty  ;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 
Time  of  digestion  ^  3  hours. 

XlXa.   9.00  A.  M.     50  grams  meat  -\- 100  c.  c.  water. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

9.30 

0.324 

0.165 

0.137 

10.00 

0.378 

0.198 

0.144 

10.30 

0.494 

0.259 

0.169 

11.00 

0.487 

0.220 

0.188 

11.15 

0.457 

0.205 

0.131 

11.30    Stomach  empty  ;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  ^  2  hours  and  30  minutes. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  291 

XIX/3.   2.30  p.  M.     50  grams  meat  -|- 150  c.  c.  lager  beer. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

3.00 

0.260 

0.119 

0.137 

3.30 

0.378 

0.201 

0.137 

4.00 

0.465 

0.191 

0.188 

4.30 

0.533 

0.223 

0.248 

4.45 

0.562 

0.233 

0.306 

5.10 

0.465 

0.223 

0.176 

5.30 

Stomach  empty  ; 

end  of 

gastric  d 

igestion. 

Time  of  digestion  :=  3  hours. 
XXo.   9.15  A.  M.    60  grams  meat  -|-  75  c.  c.  sherry  -(-  25  c.  c.  water. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


9.45 
10.15 

Total  acidity. 

0.295 
0.331 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

0.108 
0.101 

Free  HCl. 

0.155 
0.173 

10.45 

0.367 

0.133 

0.187 

11.15 

0.418 

0.158 

0.212 

11.30 
11.45 

0.436 
0.490 

0.169 
0.191 

0.216 
0.248 

12.00     Stomach  empty  ;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  :=  2  hours  and  45  minutes. 

XX3.   2.30  p.  M.     50  grams  meat  -\- 150  c.  c.  carbonated  water. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


3.00 
3.30 

Total  acidity. 

0.238 
0.360 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

0.043 
0.130 

Free  HCl. 

0.126 
0.176 

4.00 
4.30 

0.432 
0.533 

0.187 

0.169 
0.169 

4.45     Stomach  empty  ;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  =  2  hours  aud  15  minutes. 


Dog  B.— 

Weight 

21  kilos. 

I.   1.45  p.m. 

50  grams 

meat  (no  water). 

Analysis  of  contenta. 

Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

2.15 

0.353 

0.191 

0.118 

2.40 

0.443 

0.222 

0.180 

3.00 

0.511 

0.227 

0.198 

3.20 

0.525 

0.227 

0.280 

3.45 

0.572 

0.260 

0.209 

4.15 

0.568 

0.349 

0.195 

4.45     Stomach  empty  ;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 
Time  of  digestion  =  3  hours. 


292 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM 


II.  9.15  A.  M.     50  grams  meat  -\-  50  c.  c.  ■water. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


9.50 
10.15 
10.45 
11.15 
11.35 
11.55 
12.15 
12.30 
12.45 


Total  acidity. 


Loosely  combined  HCl. 


Free  HCl. 


0.302  0.220  0.082 

0.432  0.223  0.144 

0.472  0.201  0.252 

0.472  0.144  0.288 

0.484  0.155  0.270 

0.453  0.144  0.306 

0.407  0.100  0.241 

0.400  0.133  0.234 

0.306  -  0.216 

End  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  =  3  hours  and  30  minutes. 


III.  9.15  A.  M.    50  grams  meat  -|-  50  c.  c.  20  p.  c.  alcohol  -|-  water. 

Analysis  of  contents. 
Total  acidity.  Loosely  combined  HCl.  Free  HCl. 

9.50  0.136  0.086  0.036 

10.15  0.285  0.108  0.144 

10.45  0.479  .     0.173  0.244 

11.15  0.472  0.177  0.252 

11.35  0.518  0.237  0.252 

11.55  0.486  -  0.209 

12.15  0.421  -  0.213 

12.30  Stomach  empty  ;  end  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  =  3  hoiua  and  15  minutes. 

IV.  8.50  A.  M.   50  grams  meat  -|-  100  c.  c.  30  per  cent,  alcohol. 

Analysis  of  contents. 
Total  acidity.  Loosely  combined  HCl.  Free  HCl. 

9.20  0.324                          -  0.144 

9.50  0.493                          -  0.072 

10.20  0.641                          -  0.100 

10.50  0.547  0.338  0.166 

11.20  0.588                          -  0.206 

11.50  0.544                          -  0.230 

12.20  ....                            -  present. 

12.30  End  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  =  3  hours  and  40  minutes. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  293 

V.   2.45  p.  M.     50  grams  meat  -\-  75  c.  c.  claret. 

Analysis  of  contents. 
Total  acidity.  Loosely  combined  HCl.  Free  HCl. 

3.15  0.396  0.155  0.216 

3.45  0.450  0.238  0.158 

4.15  0.576  -  0.209 

4.45     End  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  =  2  hours. 

Via.    9.15  A.  M.     50  grams  meat  -(-  150  o.  c.  beer. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

9.45 

0.273 

0.144 

0.104 

10.15 

0.367 

0.187 

0.155 

10.45 

0.464 

0.223 

0.194 

11.15 

0.616 

0.345 

0.256 

11.45 

0.501 

0.238 

0.170 

12.15 

0.508 

- 

0.151 

12.30 

0.533 

- 

0.187 

12.45 

0.468 

- 

0.158 

1.00 

End  of 

gastric  digestion. 

Time  ol 

'  digestion  ^ 

3  hours  and  45 

minutes. 

VI^.   1.00  p.  M.     50  grams  meat  +  150  c.  c.  water. 

Analysis  of  contents. 


Total  acidity. 

Loosely  combined  HCl. 

Free  HCl. 

2.00 

0.620 

0.282 

0.201 

2.30 

0.590 

0.266 

0.234 

3.00 

0.666 

0.392 

0.224 

3.30 

0.627 

- 

0.206 

4.00 

- 

- 

trace. 

4.15    End  of  gastric  digestion. 

Time  of  digestion  =  3  hours  and  15  minutes. 

In  the  accompanying  table  the  "  time  of  digestion  "  of  the 
experiments  preceding  is  given  in  hours.  The  experiments 
marked  a  and  /8  are  strictly  comparable,  as  reference  to  the 
protocols  will  show  that  they  were  carried  out  in  succession  on 
the  same  day. 


294 


THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 
Table  of  Time  of  Digestion  (in  Houks). 


Doo  A. 

Doo  B. 

ii- 

^> 

a 

0  « 

Ji  ID 

0  ® 

■3*  m 

»'°  i 

"S-^  ^ 

No. 

1 

1 
< 

0  « 

No. 

is 

< 

111 

h.  m.          I 

.  m. 

h.  m. 

h.  m. 

1 

7m 

h. 

n.          h.  m. 

XVII  a    j 

3  15 

XVII  ;8    \ 

I 

2  55 

I          ; 
II 

i  3( 

)          .'. 

II 

2  20 

III 

5      !!!! 

VII 

i 

IV 

3  ^ 

w 

VI 

!  30 

V 

2 

VIII 

!  05 

VIa( 

3  45 

IX 

5  45 

vip\    . 

j'i. 

XVIII  a  S 

2'36 



XVIII  )3  1 

i'" 

XIV 

2'46 

XV 

3' 15 

XlXa      ( 

2'36 

XLXjS     ] 

3  " 

XVI 

3 

IV 

2' 30 

X 

3  15 

in 

xin 

3'" 

XX  o       i 

2  45 

XX /3       ) 

2 'is 

V 

2  40 

XI 

2 

xn 

3 

Average 

2  40 

i  20 

3  10 

2  40 

n 

5     ~3~ 

50         2  52 

From  these  results  it  is  apparent  that  the  time  of  digestion 
in  the  stomach  for  the  proteid  test  meal  employed  is  not  greatly 
varied  under  the  influence  of  alcohol.  The  results  obtained 
suggest,  ijossibly,  a  tendency  toward  prolongation  of  the  period 
during  which  the  meat  remains  in  the  stomach  when  alcoholic 
fluids  are  present.  This  tendency  is  most  noticeable  in  the 
case  of  Dog  A,  and  particularly  in  those  experiments  which 
immediately  succeed  each  other  on  the  same  day  and  are  there- 
fore strictly  comparable.  These  differences  are  too  small,  how- 
ever, to  have  any  great  significance,  especially  as  in  Dog  B 
weak  alcohol  appears  to  have  increased  the  rate  of  digestion, 
and  in  Dog  A  strong  alcohol  did  not  cause  any  lengthening  of 
the  average  time  of  digestion.  Retardation  is  perhaps  more 
marked  with  the  malted  beverages  and  is  apparently  out  of 
proportion    to   the   alcohol   present.     With    reference    to    the 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  295 

changes  in  the  acidity  of  the  stomach  contents,  a  large  number 
of  observations  disclose  no  specific  differences  in  the  various 
digestions.  The  variations  are  common  to  all  the  experiments. 
They  include  a  gradual  rise  in  total  acidity  during  approxi- 
mately the  fii'st  two  hours  of  digestion,  followed  by  a  gradual 
decrease  until  the  stomach  becomes  empty ;  at  this  point  free 
HCl  is  absent.  The  combined  HCl  increases  with  the  progress 
of  digestion,  the  products  of  proteolysis  combining  with  rela- 
tively larger  quantities  of  free  acid.^  Since  the  secretion  of 
acid  is  continually  progressing  in  the  stomach,  the  percentage 
of  free  HCl  increases  gradually  in  the  course  of  the  digestion, 
likewise  decreasing  rapidly  toward  the  end  of  this  process.  In 
agreement  with  our  previous  statements  relative  to  the  rather 
sudden  discbarge  of  the  gastric  contents  into  the  intestine  (p. 
285),  an  abrupt  decline  in  acidity  toward  the  end  of  the  diges- 
tion period  was  frequently  observed.  Evidence  of  an  "  after 
period  "  of  secretion  was  not  obtained.^ 

D.    DISAPPEAHiNCE   OF   ALCOHOL   FROM   THE   STOMACH. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  alcohol  disappears  rapidly  from 
the  alimentary  canal,  and  even  so  early  as  1847  Bouchardat 
and  Sandras  stated  that  the  absorption  takes  place  from  the 
stomach  especially.^  More  recent  and  conclusive  experiments, 
in  which  the  pylorus  has  been  artificially  closed,  have  demon- 
strated with  certainty  that  alcohol,  in  distinction  from  water,  is 
readily  absorbed  from  the  stomach.*  Furthermore,  many  sub- 
stances, like  sugar,  peptone,  etc.,  are  readily  absorbed  from  the 
stomach  in  the  presence  of  alcohol,  while  their  absorption  from 
the  intestine  is  likewise  accelerated  by  this  substance.^  Thus, 
an  ordinary  dose  of  chloral  hydrate  introduced  in  watery  solu- 
tion into  a  stomach  with  ligated  pylorus  fails  to  bring  about 

'  Cf.  Chittenden,  Digestive  Proteolysis,  1894,  pp.  53  seq. 

^  Cf.  Gluzinski,  Jahreshericht  f.  Thierchemie,  1886,  xvi.  p.  264. 

'  Bouchardat  and  Sandras,  Annales  de  chimie  et  de  physique,  1847,  xxi. 
3  s^rie,  p.  466. 

*  Cf.  for  example,  Tappeiner,  Zeitschr.  f.  Biologie,  1881,  xvi.  p.  497  ; 
Brandl,  Ihid.,  1892,  xxix.  p.  277  ;  v.  Mering,  Jahreshericht  f.  Thierchemie, 
1893,  xxiii.  p.  293. 

^  Cf.,  for  example,  J.  v.  Scanzoni,  Zextschr.  f.  Biologie,  1896,  xxxiii.  p. 
462. 


296 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


narcosis ;  ^  if,  however,  a  quantity  of  alcohol  too  small  of  itself 
to  produce  any  pharmacological  action  be  jireseut,  narcosis  fol- 
lows, just  as  when  the  open  pylorus  permits  the  intestine  to 
participate  in  the  absorption. 

The  complete  disappearance  of  alcohol  from  the  stomach  has 
been  observed  by  us  in  a  large  number  of  experiments  in  which 
the  pylorus  was  ligated.  The  following  results,  tabulated  from 
the  experiments  on  secretion  (pp.  2G9-276),  demonstrate  this 
statement :  — 

Table  showing  Absorption  of  Axcohol  fbom  Stomach. 


No. 

Weight  o£ 
dog. 
Kilos. 

Duration 

of 

experiment. 

Volume  of  fluid 
introduced. 

Content  of 

alcohol. 

Per  cent,  by 

vol. 

Alcohol  found 

at  end  of 

experiment. 

Grams. 

VII 

2,3.0 

h.  m. 
3  30 

200  (alcohol) 

37.5 

4 

vni 

21.0 

3  00 

200  (     "      ) 

37.5 

4-5 

IX 

8.0 

3  50 

100  (     "      ) 

5.0 

0 

X 

7.3 

3  45 

110  (      "      ) 

4.8 

0 

XIII 

10.7 

3  55 

75  (sherry) 

21.0 

0 

XIV 

18.5 

3  45 

1.50  (whiskey) 

16.0 

0 

XV 

8.0 

3  45 

125  (wine) 

13.3 

0 

XVI 

25.0 

3  00 

1,35  (   "    ) 

13.3 

0 

XVII 

12.3 

4  00 

125  (claret) 

5.15 

0 

XVIII 

10.2 

3  55 

100  (beer) 

4.5 

0 

XX 

14.0 

3  45 

1,50  (porter) 

3.75 

0 

XXI 

8.5 

3  55 

125  (beer) 

4.7 

0 

The  rapid  discharge  of  watery  or  alcoholic  fluids  from  the 
stomach  through  the  pylorus  has  already  been  referred  to  on 
p.  284.  The  results  are  in  harmony  with  those  obtained  by 
V.  Mering  on  dogs  with  duodenal  fistulse.^  In  his  experiments, 
for  example,  500  c.  c.  being  administered  to  a  large  dog,  490 
0.  0.  were  expelled  through  the  pylorus  in  twenty  minutes. 
The  rapidity  of  expulsion  was  found  to  depend  on  the  state  of 
repletion  of  the  small  intestine,  —  an  observation  in  accord 
with  the  retarded  evacuation  of  the  stomach  seen  when  food  is 
given  along  with  fluids,  v.  Mering  further  observed  that  when 
water  holding  CO2  in  solution  enters  the  stomach  the  gas  is 
readily  absorbed ;  ^  alcohol  is  likewise  absorbed,  as  J.  Miller 

'  Cf .  also  experiments  with  strychnine.  Meltzer,  Journ.  of  Exper.  Medi- 
cine, 1896,  i.  p.  529. 

2  V.  Mering  ;  quoted  in  Gamgee,  Physiological  ChemUtry,  1893,  ii.  pp. 
441  seq. 

8  Cf.  also  Experiment  V.,  p.  286. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  297 

has  recently  verified  for  the  human  stomach. ^  Ogata  ^  found 
that  of  6.5  to  8.8  grams  of  alcohol  introduced  into  the  stomach 
in  wine  or  beer,  80  to  90  per  cent,  disappeared  within  half  an 
hour.  In  the  presence  of  soluble  products  in  the  stomach  an 
excretion  of  water  by  that  organ  is  said  to  result  in  j)roportion 
to  the  amount  of  substance  absorbed,  —  an  idea  akin  to  the  one 
suggested  in  explanation  of  the  relatively  larger  quantities  of 
fluid  found  in  the  unligated  stomach  soon  after  introduction  of 
alcohol,  as  compared  with  water.  The  experiments  which  we 
have  made  verify  the  statements  of  the  investigators  mentioned, 
as  the  following  data,  selected  from  protocols,  indicate  :  — 

Data  showing  disappearance  of  alcohol  from  unligated  stomach. 

I.  Dog,  with  gastric  fistula. 

a.  3.45  p.  M.  Litroduced  50  c.  c.  20  per  cent,  alcohol  into  stomach. 
4.15    "      Removed  gastric  contents  =  40  c.  c.     No  alcohol  found. 

b.  3.15     "      Introduced  40  c.  c.  25  per  cent,  alcohol. 

3.45    "      Removed  gastric  contents  =  20  c.  c.     No  alcohol  found. 

c.  2.40    "      Introduced  125  c.  c.  20  per  cent,  alcohol. 

3.10    "      Removed   a   portion  of   gastric   contents.     Free  HCl  = 
0.072  per  cent.     Small  amount  of  alcohol  present. 

II.  Dog  of  18  kilos,  employed  in  a  salivary  experiment.  In  the  course 
of  the  latter  the  animal  received  at  intervals  45  c.  c.  absolute  alcohol 
diluted  with  water.  Two  hours  after  last  portion  was  given  the  stom- 
ach contents  (200  c.  c.)  were  removed.  They  contained  1.1  grams 
alcohol. 

III.  Dog  of  18  kilos.  Salivary  experiment.  At  intervals  were  given  70 
c.  c.  absolute  alcohol  diluted  with  water.  One  and  one  third  hours 
after  last  portion  (40  c.  c.)  was  given  the  stomach  contents  (350  c.  c.) 
contained  9.4  grams  alcohol. 

IV.  Dog  of  14  kilos.  Salivary  experiment.  140  c.  c.  absolute  alcohol 
diluted  with  water  were  given  in  three  portions.  Three  fourths  of  an 
hour  after  the  last  portion  (50  c.  c.)  the  stomach  contents  (450  e.  c.) 
contained  24.6  grams  alcohol. 

V.  Dog  of  10  kilos.  Salivary  experiment.  120  e.  c.  whiskey,  containing 
50  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  were  given  in  two  portions.  Four  and  one 
half  hours  after  the  last  portion  (60  c.  c.)  the  stomach  contents  (170 
c.  c.)  contained  2.7  grams  alcohol. 

VI.  Dog.  Salivary  experiment.  135  c.  c.  brandy,  containing  about  50 
per  cent,  of  alcohol,  were  given  in  two  portions.  Two  hours  after  last 
portion  (75  c.  c.)  the  stomach  contents  (240  c.  c.)  contained  8.8  grams 
alcohol. 

'  Miller,   J.,   Arch.  f.    Verdauungskranhh.,   i.   p.  233.    Jahresbericht  f. 
Thierchemie,  1895,  xxv.  p.  293. 
*  Ogilta,  Jahresbericht /.  Thierchemie,  1885,  sv.  p.  274. 


298  THE   LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

VII.  Dog  of  10  kilos.  Salivary  experiment.  350  c.  o.  wine,  containing 
5.15  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  were  given  in  two  portions.  One  and  one  half 
hours  after  last  portiouf  (200  c.  c.)  the  stomach  contents  (190  c.  c.) 
contained  5.5  grams  alcohol. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  large  volumes  of  fluid  (170  to  450  c.  c.) 
found  in  the  stomach  in  Experiments  II.  to  VII.  correspond  with  the  data 
already  presented  with  reference  to  the  increased  secretion  of  gastric  juice 
due  to  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages. 

E.   SUMMAKT. 

Some  of  the  more  important  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from 
tbese  series  of  experiments  may  be  advantageously  summarized 
here. 

Upon  the  secretion  of  saliva  the  presence  of  strong  alcohol 
or  an  alcoholic  beverage  in  the  mouth  has  a  direct  stimulating 
effect  leading  to  a  sudden  increase  in  the  flow  of  saliva.  This 
acceleration  of  secretion,  however,  is  of  brief  duration.  The 
stimulating  effect  is  manifested  not  only  by  an  increase  in  the 
volume  of  the  secretion,  but  also  by  an  increase  in  both  organic 
and  inorganic  constituents.  The  effect  produced  is  in  no  sense 
peculiar  to  alcohol,  but  is  common  to  many  so-called  stimulants, 
such  as  dilute  acid  (vinegar),  ether  vapor,  etc.  Indeed,  the 
effect  is  precisely  analogous  to  that  induced  by  an  increase  in 
intensity  of  stimulation  when  the  salivary  glands  are  electri- 
cally excited  through  their  nerves. 

As  to  the  possibility  of  alcoholic  fluids  absorbed  from  the 
stomach  giving  rise  to  an  indirect  stimulation  of  salivary  secre- 
tion or  exercising  any  appreciable  influence  upon  the  composi- 
tion of  the  secretion,  our  results  give  a  negative  answer.  Thus, 
alcoholic  fluids  introduced  directly  into  the  stomach  (of  dogs) 
by  injection  through  the  stomach  wall,  thus  doing  away  with 
any  local  action  in  the  mouth,  produce  no  appreciable  effect 
upon  the  rate  of  secretion,  as  induced  by  a  constant  external 
stimulus,  of  either  submaxillary  or  sublingual  saliva.  Even 
doses  of  alcohol  sufficient  to  produce  prolonged  narcosis  when 
introduced  in  this  way  fail  to  check  the  flow  of  saliva.  There 
is  likewise  no  specific  influence  exerted  on  the  composition  of 
the  secretion.  Hence,  so  far  as  our  results  go,  alcohol  and  al- 
coholic fluids  are  without  any  specific  effect  upon  the  secretion 
of  saliva,  except  to  produce  a  transitory  stimulation  of  secre- 
tion while  in  the  mouth  cavity. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  299 

Upon  gastric  secretion  alcohol  and  alcoholic  fluids  have  a 
marked  effect,  increasing  very  greatly  both  the  flow  of  gastric 
juice  and  also  its  content  of  acid  and  total  solids.  Further, 
this  action  is  exerted  not  only  by  the  presence  of  alcoholic 
fluids  in  the  stomach,  but  also  indirectly  through  the  influence 
of  alcohol  absorbed  from  the  intestine.  Thus,  ordinary  ethyl 
alcohol  introduced  into  the  empty  stomachs  of  dogs,  with  the 
duodenum  ligated,  shows  a  marked  stimulating  action  upon 
gastric  secretion  —  as  compared  with  the  action  of  water  under 
like  conditions  —  increasing  not  only  the  volume  of  gastric 
juice  very  greatly,  but  also  its  acidity,  content  of  solid  matter, 
etc.  Moreover,  alcohol  absorbed  from  the  intestine,  the  latter 
being  entirely  shut  off  from  the  stomach,  may  likewise  cause 
stimulation  of  the  gastric  glands,  with  a  marked  increase  in  the 
rate  of  secretion,  etc.  Whiskey,  brandy,  sherry,  claret,  beer, 
and  porter  all  agree  in  producing  stimulation  of  gastric  secre- 
tion. Further,  as  already  stated,  the  gastric  juice  secreted 
under  alcoholic  stimulation  is  more  acid,  contains  more  solid 
matter  and  more  combined  hydrochloric  acid  than  the  ordinary 
secretion.     It  is  likewise  strongly  proteolytic. 

If  these  results  are  considered  in  connection  with  our  previ- 
ous observations  upon  the  influence  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic 
drinks  upon  the  purely  chemical  processes  of  gastric  digestion, 
it  is  seen  that  side  by  side  with  the  greater  or  lesser  retarda- 
tion of  digestive  proteolysis  caused  by  alcoholic  beverages  there 
occurs  an  increased  flow  of  gastric  juice  rich  in  acid  and  of  un- 
questionable digestive  power.  The  two  effects  may  thus  nor- 
mally counterbalance  each  other,  though  it  is  evident  that 
modifying  conditions  may  readily  retard  or  stimulate  the  pro- 
cesses in  the  stomach  according  to  circumstances.  Foremost 
among  the  latter  is  the  rapid  disappearance  of  alcohol  from  the 
alimentary  canal. 

Since  any  influence  exerted  by  alcohol  or  alcoholic  beverages 
upon  the  solvent  or  digestive  power  of  the  gastric  juice  in  the 
stomach  must  depend  upon  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  stom- 
ach contents,  it  follows  that  the  tendency  toward  rapid  removal 
of  the  alcohol  from  the  alimentary  tract  by  absorption  must 
necessarily  diminish  correspondingly  the  extent  of  any  retarda- 
tion of  gastric  digestion  which  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the 
stomach  may  occasion.     Since,  however,  the  stimulation  of  gas- 


/ 


300  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

trie  secretion  induced  by  alcohol  is  brought  about  not  only  by 
the  direct  action  of  alcohol  in  the  stomach,  but  also  by  the  in- 
direct action  of  alcohol  absorbed  fi-om  the  intestine,  it  foUows 
that  possible  inhibition  of  the  digestive  action  of  the  gastric 
juice  would  probably  be  of  shorter  duration  than  the  stimula- 
tion of  secretion,  and  that  consequently  in  the  body  alcoholic 
fluids  would  hardly  lead  to  any  retardation  of  gastric  digestion. 
This  point  has  been  very  carefully  and  thoroughly  tested  by 
numerous  experiments  on  healthy  dogs  with  gastric  fistulse, 
using  proteid  test  meals,  with  the  result  that  certainly  in  the 
stomach  of  dogs  digestion  is  not  retarded  in  any  pronounced 
degree  under  the  influence  of  alcohol  or  alcoholic  fluids.  Of 
hastened  digestion  the  results  obtained  give  little  or  no  positive 
suggestion,  and  we  must  therefore  conclude  that  the  two  diverse 
factors  above  referred  to  more  or  less  counterbalance  each  other, 
so  that  gastric  digestion  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  term  is  not 
markedly  varied  under  the  influence  of  alcohol  or  alcoholic 
fluids.  This  conclusion,  it  may  be  mentioned,  stands  in  perfect 
harmony  with  the  results  of  the  investigations  of  Zuntz  and 
Magnus-Levy  regarding  the  influence  of  alcohol  (beer)  on  the 
digestibility  and  utilization  of  food  in  the  body.  These  inves- 
tigators found  by  a  series  of  metabolic  experiments  on  men 
with  diets  largely  made  up  of  milk  and  bread,  and  on  individ- 
uals accustomed  and  unaccustomed  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  bev- 
erages, that  the  latter  did  not  in  any  way  diminish  the  utiliza^ 
tion  of  the  food  by  the  body.^ 

Especially  worthy  of  note  is  the  rapid  disappearance  of  alco- 
hol from  the  stomach  and  alimentary  tract  when  alcoholic 
fluids  are  taken.  As  our  results  show,  the  introduction  of  even 
200  c.  c.  of  thirty-seven  per  cent,  alcohol  into  the  stomach  of  a 
dog,  with  the  duodenum  ligated  at  the  pylorus,  may  be  followed 
by  the  nearly  complete  disappeai-ance  of  the  alcohol  in  three  to 
three  and  one  half  hours  by  absorption  through  the  stomach 
walls  into  the  blood.  With  the  outlet  from  the  stomach  into 
the  intestine  open  the  rate  of  absorption  of  alcohol  is  greatly 
increased.      We  may  well  believe,  as   stated  by  Ogata,  that 

1  Zuntz  and  Magnus-Levy,  Archil)  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1891,  xlix.  p.  438  ; 
Magnus-Levy,  Ibid.,  1893,  liii.  p.  544. 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION.  301 

when  six  to  eight  grams  of  alcohol  are  taken  into  the  stomach 
in  the  form  of  wine  or  beer  eighty  to  ninety  per  cent,  of  the 
alcohol  will  disappear  from  the  alimentary  tract  inside  of  half 
an  hour.  Indeed,  our  own  experiments  on  dogs  with  gastric 
fistulse  lead  to  this  conclusion.  Thus,  in  one  experiment  50 
c.  c.  of  twenty  per  cent,  alcohol  were  introduced  into  the 
stomach,  and  on  withdrawing  the  stomach  contents  half  an 
hour  later  no  alcohol  whatever  was  found  in  the  40  c.  c.  of 
fluid  obtained.  In  view  of  this  rapid  disappearance  of  alcohol 
from  the  alimentary  tract  it  is  plain  that  alcoholic  fluids  cannot 
have  much,  if  any,  direct  influence  upon  the  secretion  of  either 
pancreatic  or  intestinal  juice. 

3.  The  Influence  of  Alcoholic  Flitids   on  the  Composition 
AND  Amlolttic  Power  of  Human  Saliva.^ 

In  this  series  of  experiments  the  attempt  was  made  to  ascer- 
tain how  far  alcoholic  fluids,  acting  as  stimuli  to  secretion,  will 
modify  the  properties  of  mixed  saliva.  The  special  agents  em- 
ployed were  ether,  alcohol,  whiskey,  and  gin.  The  first  two 
were  taken  into  the  mouth  in  the  form  of  vapor,  and  the  saliva 
allowed  to  trickle  from  the  mouth  without  motion  of  the  jaws, 
the  fluid  so  obtained  being  compared  with  saliva  resulting  from 
the  mechanical  stimulation  produced  by  chewing  a  piece  of  rub- 
ber. With  whiskey  and  gin,  the  mouth  was  well  rinsed  with 
the  fluid  and  the  saliva  collected  by  allowing  it  to  flow  from 
the  comer  of  the  mouth.  The  control  experiments  with  water 
were  made  in  the  same  way ;  i.  e.,  the  mouth  was  rinsed  with 
water  and  the  saliva  allowed  to  trickle  forth.  Finally,  for  the 
sake  of  comparison  and  to  ascertain  how  far  two  samples  of 
saliva  obtained  at  such  close  intervals,  under  similar  forms  of 
stimulation,  differ  from  each  other,  four  control  experiments 
were  tried  with  water  and  rubber  alone. 

Following  are  the  results  obtained :  — 

1  The  experiments  here  reported  were  originally  published  by  R.  H. 
Chittenden  and  Alfred  N.  Richards  in  the  American  Journal  of  Physiology, 
i.  461,  1898. 


302 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Date. 

Time. 

Stimulus. 

Volume 
saliva 

Alkalinity 
calculated 
as  Na,C03. 

Per  cent. 

Amyloly- 
tic  power. 

Milli^ams 
maltose. 

Total 
solids. 

Per 

cent. 

Organic 
matter. 

Per  cent. 

Inor- 
ganic 
salts. 
Per 

cent. 

Dec.  3 

A.M. 

11.05-11.30 

11.30-11.50 

Rubber 
Ether 

40 
30 

0.168 
0.204 

582.6 
624.6 

0.03 
0.76 

0.31 
0.54 

0.32 
0.22 

"     9 

9..50-10.10 
10.10-10.30 

Rubber 
Ether 

30 

25 

- 

562.8 
498.6 

0.54 
0.54 

0.30 
0.29 

0.24 
0.31 

"    13 

F.  M. 

11.40-12.00 
12.00-12.35 

Rubber 
Alcohol 

40 

28 

0.122 
0.132 

472.2 
510.6 

0.41 
0.43 

0.21 
0.19 

0.20 
0.24 

"     14 

10.00-10.30 
10.30-11.00 

Water 
Whiskey 

30 
35 

0.061 
0.102 

473.4 

485.4 

0.32 
0.42 

0.19 
0.29 

0.13 
0.13 

"    16 

10.15-10.40 
10.45-11.20 

Water 
Gin 

23 
24 

0.071 
0.102 

483.6 
642.0 

0.34 
0.53 

0.20 
0.30 

0.14 
0.17 

«    17 

10.20-10.38 
10.45-10.55 

Ether 
Rubber 

27 
28 

0.122 
0.183 

586.2 
577.2 

0.32 
0.52 

0.16 
0.24 

0.16 
0.28 

"    20 

p.  M. 

11.15-11.48 
12.15-12.45 

Water 
Water 

24 
24 

0.071 
0.102 

606.6 
564.0 

0.68 
0.38 

0.55 
0.27 

0.13 
0.11 

Jan. 11 

3.03-  3.35 
4.05-  4.40 

Water 
Water 

26 
30 

0.053 
0.081 

436.8 
532.2 

0.30 
0.35 

0.16 
0.21 

0.14 
0.14 

"    13 

p.  M. 

A.  M. 

1 1.215-11.40 
12.10-12.26 

Rubber 
Rubber 

30 
30 

0.1.53 
0.261 

571.8 
550.8 

0.49 
0.47 

0.26 
0.24 

0.23 
0.23 

"    14 

l6.38-10..58 
11.30-11.45 

Rubber 
Rubber 

34 
32 

0.1.32 
0.142 

577.8 
594.6 

0.50 
0.51 

0.27 
0.26 

0.23 
0.25 

A  glance  through  these  results  shows  at  once  certain  marked 
differences  in  the  character  of  the  saliva  obtained  under  the 
different  conditions  specified.  Thus,  saliva  which  flows  from 
the  mouth  after  the  latter  has  been  rinsed  once  with  water  in- 
variably shows  a  lower  degree  of  alkalinity  and  generally  con- 
tains a  smaller  percentage  of  solid  matter  than  the  secretion 
obtained  by  the  other  methods.  In  amylolytic  power,  however, 
there  is  great  variation,  some  samples  showing  a  relatively 
strong  amylolytic  action,  while  others  with  essentially  the  same 
degree  of  alkalinity  are  much  weaker  in  their  starch-digesting 
power.  Simple  mastication  of  rubber  has  a  marked  influence 
in  raising  the  content  of  alkaline  salts  in  the  saliva,  as  well  as 
the  total  inorganic  constituents,  and  there  is  a  tendency  toward 
increase  in  amylolytic  power,  although  the  latter  is  not  con- 
stant. 


DIGESTION  AND   SECRETION.  303 

As  to  the  influence  of  alcohol,  ether,  gin,  and  whiskey,  there 
is,  we  think,  no  question  that  these  agents  taken  into  the  mouth 
change  the  character  of  the  secretion,  increasing  its  alkalinity, 
amylolytic  power,  and  content  of  solid  matter.  This  is  cer- 
tainly true  if  the  secretion  so  obtained  is  compared  with  the 
saliva  flowing  from  the  mouth  without  stimulation  of  any  kind. 
Saliva,  however,  secreted  under  the  stimulation  produced  by 
chewing  rubber,  is,  as  we  have  seen,  comparatively  concentrated, 
and  the  difference  between  the  secretion  resulting  from  that 
method  and  the  fluid  coming  from  ether,  alcohol,  and  other  like 
forms  of  excitation,  without  mechanical  stimulation,  is  not  so 
decisive  in  the  above  experiments  as  to  make  the  matter  quite 
clear,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  two  portions  of  saliva 
obtained  one  after  the  other,  by  the  same  method  of  stimula- 
tion, are  liable  to  show  marked  differences  in  composition  and 
reaction.  Particularly  noteworthy  is  the  fact  that  of  two  por- 
tions of  saliva  collected  one  after  the  other  by  mechanical 
stimulation  (chewing  rubber)  or  by  simply  allowing  the  saliva 
to  flow  from  the  mouth  after  once  rinsing  the  latter  vfith  water, 
the  latter  portion  of  saliva  is,  as  a  rule,  more  concentrated  and 
possessed  of  higher  amylolytic  power  than  the  portion  first 
secreted.  It  is  thus  obvious  that  great  care  must  be  exercised 
in  drawing  deductions  from  the  composition  and  amylolytic 
action  of  mixed  saliva  when  the  latter  is  so  prone  to  vary  under 
what  seem  to  be  essentially  the  same  forms  of  stimulation.  It 
is  furthermore  equally  obvious  that  the  possible  causes  to  which 
the  above  variations  may  be  attributed  are  many,  since  there 
are  involved  three  distinct  sets  of  glands  in  addition  to  the 
buccal  glands  of  the  mouth  cavity.  Hence,  increase  or  de- 
crease in  amylolj'tie  power,  as  well  as  in  the  general  concen- 
tration of  the  secretion,  may  involve  simply  an  alteration  in 
the  relative  activity  of  the  individual  glands  and  not  be  con- 
nected primarily  with  any  specific  stimulation  of  metabolic  or 
secretory  activity. 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  quite  clear  that  the  natural  varia- 
tions in  the  character  of  the  mixed  saliva,  indicated  by  the 
results  of  the  last  four  experiments  of  the  above  series,  render 
it  necessary  to  use  great  caution  in  arranging  the  conditions 
under  which  the  experiments  are  tried.  We  have  therefore 
repeated  the  above  experiments,  choosing  for  the  collection  of 


304 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


the  saliva  a  time  of  day  when  we  have  found  the  mixed  saliva 
most'coustant  in  composition ;  viz.,  between  9.30  and  10.30  A.  m. 
To  be  sure,  there  are  variations  in  the  composition  and  starch- 
digesting  power  of  successive  portions  of  saliva  collected  by  the 
same  method  at  this  period,  but  they  are  relatively  small ;  quite 
small,  indeed,  as  compared  with  the  variations  liable  to  occur 
at  other  periods  of  the  day.  The  truth  of  this  statement  is 
illustrated  by  the  two  following  experiments,  in  which  the 
saliva  was  collected  without  stimulation,  simply  allowing  it  to 
flow  from  the  mouth. 


Date. 

Time. 

Volume 

saliva. 

Alkalinity 

Na.,003. 
Per  cent. 

Araylolytic 

power. 
Milligrams 

maltose. 

Total 
eoUdB. 

Per  cent. 

Organic 
constit- 
uents. 
Per  cent. 

Feb.  3 
"     3 

A.M. 

9.32-10.06 
10.15-10.42 

21.0 
22.0 

0.0816 
0.0918 

569.4 
549.0 

0.50 
0.46 

0.31 
0.29 

"     3 

"     3 

5.00-  5.20 
5.27-  5.50 

19.5 

n.o 

0.0918 
0.1122 

573.6 
613.8 

0.49 
0.68 

0.31 
0.51 

0.19 
0.17 


0.18 
0.17 


Thus,  the  two  portions  collected  between  9.32  and  10.42  a.m. 
are  essentially  alike,  while  the  two  fractions  secreted  between 
5.00  and  5.50  p.  m.,  all  without  stimulation,  are  more  dissimilar. 
Adopting  the  morning  hour  as  the  better  time  for  collection, 
experiments  were  tried  with  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  whiskey, 
and  gin,  comparing  in  each  case  the  saliva  obtained  under 
their  influence  with  the  secretion  coming  without  stimulation  of 
any  kind.  The  exact  method  pursued  in  the  case  of  the  con- 
trol, i.  e.,  with  water,  was  to  rinse  the  mouth  once  with  distilled 
water,  after  which  the  saliva  was  simply  allowed  to  drop  from 
the  mouth  into  a  beaker.  With  ether  and  chloroform  the 
mouth  was  filled  once  with  the  vapor  and  the  saliva  then  al- 
lowed to  flow  spontaneously  into  a  receptacle  without  any  motion 
of  the  jaws.  With  the  alcohol,  gin,  and  whiskey,  10  c.  c.  of  the 
fluid  were  taken  into  the  mouth,  held  a  moment,  and  then 
ejected,  after  which  the  saliva  was  collected  as  in  the  other  cases. 
Lastly,  an  experiment  was  tried  (February  15)  by  chewing 


DIGESTION  AND  SECRETION. 


305 


rubber  as  a  stimulant  and  comparing  the  saliva  so  obtained 
with  a  control  secreted  without  stimulation.  Following  are  the 
results  obtained :  — 


Date. 

Time. 

Stimulua. 

Vol. 
sali- 

Alkalinity 
NaoCOj. 
Per  cent. 

Amylo- 

Ij-tic 

power. 

MiUigrams 

maltose. 

Total 
solids. 

Per 
cent. 

Organic 
constitu- 
ents. 

Per  cent. 

Inor- 
ganic 
salts. 
Per 
cent. 

Feb.  7 

A.M. 

10.05-10.32 
10.37-10.56 

Water 

40%  Alcohol 

18.0 
18.0 

0.0714 
0.1122 

480.6 
514.2 

0.42 
0.43 

0.22 
0.26 

0.20 

0.17 

"     8 

9.37-10.05 
10.11-10.32 

Water 
Ether 

18.0 
18.0 

0.0612 
0.1122 

566.4 
.558.6 

0.42 
0.54 

0.25 
0.29 

0.17 
0.25 

"    10 

9.53-10.18 
10.27-10.47 

Water 
Chloroform 

17.5 
17.0 

0.0816 
0.0714 

604.2 
644.4 

0.51 
0.69 

0.33 
0.48 

0.18 
0.21 

"    11 

9.40-10.07 
10.14-10.36 

Water 
Whiskey 

17.0 
17.0 

0.0714 
0.1020 

493.3 

547.8 

0.39 
0.50 

0.25 
0.31 

0.14 
0.19 

"    15 

9.52-10.16 
10.21-10.27 

Water 
Rubber 

16.5 
17.0 

0.0816 
0.1530 

541.2 
577.2 

0.38 
0.58 

0.21 
0.26 

0.17 
0.32 

"    18 

9.33-10.03 
10.10-10.34 

Water 
Gin 

17.0 
19.0 

0.0714 
0.1020 

584.4 
610.2 

0.49 
0.57 

0.38 
0.39 

0.16 
0.18 

"    23 

9.26-  9.51 
10.01-10.24 

Water 
Water 

17.0 
17.5 

0.0714 
0.0714 

429.6 
423.0 

0.30 
0.31 

0.18 
0.18 

0.12 
0.13 

From  these  results  it  would  seem  quite  clear  that  the  several 
agents  employed,  with  the  exception  of  chloroform,  give  rise  to 
a  marked  increase  in  the  content  of  alkaline-reacting  salts  in 
mixed  saliva.  Mechanical  stimulation,  as  by  chewing  rubber, 
however,  is  even  more  effective  than  the  chemical  stimuli  em- 
ployed, although  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that  in  the  above 
experiments  the  action  of  alcohol,  ether,  whiskey,  etc.,  is  neces- 
sarily of  short  duration.  Further,  there  is  evidence  in  most  of 
the  results  of  an  increase  in  amylolytic  power,  as  well  as  in  the 
content  of  solid  matter  under  the  influence  of  the  stimuli.  It 
is  thus  safe  to  assert  that  alcohol  and  alcoholic  fluids  not  only 
stimulate  the  flow  of  saliva,  but  that  they  also  tend  to  increase 
the  concentration  and  amylolytic  power  of  human  mixed  saliva, 
—  results  which  are  in  close  accord  with  the  action  of  these 
fluids  upon  the  secretion  of  the  sub-maxillary  saliva  of  the  dog. 


DATA  RELATING  TO  THE  USE  OF  ALCOHOLIC 

DRINKS  AMONG  BRAIN  WORKERS  IN 

THE  UNITED  STATES. 


J.  S.  BILLINGS,  M.  D. 


DATA  RELATING  TO  THE  USE  OF  ALCOHOLIC 
DRINKS  AMONG  BRAIN  WORKERS  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

Early  in  1895  a  circular  letter  of  inquiry  was  sent  to  about 
1500  men  in  the  United  States  engaged  in  mental  work  of  a 
high  class.  The  list  included  the  leading  members  of  the  legal, 
medical,  and  clerical  professions,  distinguished  scientific  men 
and  educators,  prominent  business  men,  and  managers  of  great 
corporations.  To  this  circular  892  replies  were  i-eceived,  and 
the  data  from  these  rei^lies  have  been  compiled  in  the  following 
tables. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  obtain  returns  fi-om  physicians  with 
regard  to  the  habit  of  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  its  effects 
upon  the  health  of  families  under  their 'charge,  but  the  results 
were  of  little  value.  The  records  of  230  persons  were  received, 
of  whom  31  per  cent,  were  affected  with  chronic  disease.  The 
proportion  thus  affected  was  for  the  total  abstainers  11.6  per 
cent,  and  for  the  moderate  drinkers  31.5  per  cent.  Nearly  all 
of  the  returns  came  from  a  few  physicians  who  are  prominent 
advocates  of  total  abstinence. 

There  is  no  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  opinions  of  physi- 
cians as  to  the  effect  of  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors ;  but  when 
it  comes  to  filling  out  forms  for  each  one  of  their  patients,  there 
are  very  few  who  are  willing  to  take  the  trouble  to  do  this. 

Dr.  Robert  T.  Edes,  of  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.,  kindly  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Committee  a  number  of  reports  received 
from  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  Lunacy,  and 
Charity,  in  connection  with  an  inquiry  sent  out  to  physicians  of 
that  State  in  1879  with  regard  to  hereditary  effects  of  the  use 
of  alcohol.  These  reports  have  never  been  collated.  Dr.  Edes 
stated  that  the  facts  were  too  few  and  too  vague  to  be  of  value, 
and  nothing  was  done  with  them. 

The  following  tables  indicate  the  minimum  proportion  of 
users  of  alcoholic  drinks  among  successful  brain  workers  in  this 


310  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

country.  The  total  abstainers  and  moderate  drinkers  probably 
reported  in  greater  proportion  than  the  regular  drinkers. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  percentage  of  total  abstainers  was 
lowest  among  the  physicians  (1.4  per  cent.),  and  highest  among 
the  clergymen  (54  per  cent.),  and  that  the  percentage  of  regu- 
lar drinkers  was  greatest  among  the  business  men  (26.5  per 
cent.). 

Of  the  total  abstainers  10.3  per  cent,  reported  themselves  as 
affected  with  indigestion,  acute  rheumatism,  or  nervous  disease 
of  some  kind.  Of  the  occasional  drinkers  6.8  per  cent,  report 
themselves  as  thus  affected,  and  of  the  regular  moderate  drink- 
ers 9.2  per  cent,  report  as  being  thus  affected.  The  regular 
moderate  drinkers  used  mainly  claret  and  light  wines ;  the 
occasional  drinkers  used  chiefly  whiskey  and  beer. 

As  regards  the  percentage  of  those  reporting  themselves  as 
being  in  bad  health,  it  should  be  remembered  :  — 

1.  That  the  opinions  of  persons  as  to  their  own  health  have 
little  scientific  value. 

2.  That  those  who  know  that  they  are  affected  with  serious 
chronic  disease  were  less  likely  to  furnish  reports  than  those 
who  believed  themselves  to  be  sound. 

3.  That  the  questions  were  sent  chiefly  to  men  known  to  be 
actively  engaged  in  their  professions  or  business  and  not  broken 
down  by  ill  health. 

4.  That  the  physical  and  mental  qualities  which  tend  to  make 
a  man  specially  successful  in  professional  or  business  life  include 
a  more  than  ordinary  power  of  resistance  to  various  agents  which 
may  injure  health. 


ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  AND  BRAIN  WORKERS. 


311 


1 
1 

•f 
s 

■<! 

s- 

'■"-'•-■''-'   '-'  '  '  '-'  '  " 

t- 

1 

'  ■  ■  -  — .  ■   - -"  ■ 

2 

i 

■■•■S'-2--'   -2 ' 

S 

1 

llllr-IIO(Mi-l|*HQ0       lllli-l       tfHllltr-<ll<-ll         1 

£3 

p 

tlllCOTHCCiai<-llrHt-ll|ll          lllrHlli-lllll          | 

S 

•a 
1 

-f 

1 

Q 

o 

i 

i 

"   ■   ----■ 

S 

I 

,  ,   ,  ,».^.,.,     .„    , ,.,,,,„ 

3 

I 

1     ,-    igcoMcoo    ,     ecu;      ,     ,^r-C<.      ,=    ,,-,,* 

1 

1 

-—  'g^SS-*"  1   '-9  -  1  •  •"  -^^-  ,  ,o  ,«  ,  ,  « 

S 

Is 

,,.,.,.o..,       ,g.-,,,.      ,.,. , 

s 

1 
s 

§ 

1 

1 

< 

+ 

'  '  ■  '2'-- - 

3 

S 

■  '-'2- -" --" 

s 

1^ 

s 

If 

s 

g 

■^^ 

S 

'-'"2'— "  '    '- --' "    ' 

a 

1 

l^e,-g^,mo^.<=-    ao ^MM^^-,-,    ,     ,     ,-      , 

B 

1 

«^0-.|C5p«g;-H     5-3     C, ^g«U=*-,g^^--     « 

i 

1 
1 

Canada     .... 

Maine 

New  Hampshire    . 
Vermont  .... 
Massachusetta  .    . 
Rhode  Island    .    . 
Connecticut .     .     . 
New  York     .    .    . 
New  Jersey  .    ,    , 
Fennel  vania     .    . 
Delaware.     .    .    . 
Maryland .... 
District  of  Columbia 
Virginia   .... 
South  Carolina  .    . 
Georgia    .... 
Kentucky     .    .    . 
Louiaiana      .    .    . 

Michigan  .... 

Ohio 

Illinois      .... 
Wisconsin      .     .     . 
Minnesota      .     .     . 

Iowa 

Missouri   .... 
Montana  .... 

Utah 

California     .    .     . 
Oregon     .... 
Tokyo,  Japan    .     . 

312 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


t 

- 

' 

' 

' 

1          ^         ^ 

t^ 

- 

la 

V 

!5 

•^ 

■A 

s 

1 

•< 

i 

o 

^ 

T»t 

to 

"     s     •= 

5 

== 

■s 

if 

* 

1 

CC 

00 

,               ^              CO 

^3 

CO 

s 

■* 

a 

" 

" 

a 

CO 

■3 

g" 

•* 

r 

o         «5         »d 

f- 

^    Is 

i^ 

' 

- 

- 

c. 

,     o     - 

2 

- 

in 

1 

1 

!^ 

" 

^ 

t- 

C. 

=.. 

o 

m         ^         .o 

S 

ss 

s 

if 

» 

a 

? 

g 

"as 

« 

s 

s 

CJ 

o 

3 

1- 

s 

a 

"      s      s 

g 

o 

■i 

..1 

>sS 

^s 

.^^  r  f^ 

f.SB 

s  N 

g 

p 

« 

B 

« 

S       S       !S 

3 

i^ 

■ 

S 

- 

' 

,       .        , 

^ 

- 

t^ 

n 

^n 

CM 

1 

fr- 

Tj" 

11^ 

fc 

s 

§ 

o 

00 

«> 

, 

CO              00              -* 

O 

>.-; 

s 

■«) 

lO 

< 

•^ 

" 

S 

s 

" 

a 

M 

iS 

H 

Is 

p 

c 

s 

o 

■ 

,    o    , 

^ 

■n 

D 

M 

H 

r 

^ 

f  r  f 

f 

"|i 

s 

!S| 

?si 

^1 

^s 

^8    ^g    ^g 

i 

2 

H 

?^ 

t- 

3 

s 

CO          <5          oi 

S 

1^ 

■o 

?     ■     ■ 

n 

ifi 

•2 

a  • 

K     g     • 

ts 

1 
O 

1 

ll 

li 

•3 

§      i      „■ 
1      1      1 

■^ 

Hi 

o 

b 

ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  AND  BRAIN  WORKERS. 


313 


Table  showing  the  Pebcentages  op  Totaij  Abstainers,  Occasional 
Drinkers,  and  REonLAR  Moderate  Drinkers  of  the  Total  repokt- 
ING  FOR  each  Occupation. 


1 

Total 
Abatoinere. 

Occasional 
Drinkers. 

Regular  Moderate 
Drinkers. 

Occupations. 

5 
1 

1 

1 

f 

1 

i 

1 

Legal 

204 

15 

7.3 

146 

71.6 

43 

21.1 

Clergymen  (not  teachers)   . 

152 

82 

64. 

66 

43.4 

4 

2.6 

Professors  and  Teachers .     . 

132 

29 

21.9 

89 

07.4 

14 

10.6 

Physicians 

145 

2 

1.4 

121 

83.4 

22 

15.1 

Army  and  Nary 

30 

3 

10. 

24 

SO. 

3 

10. 

Business  Men 

147 

29 

19.7 

79 

53.7 

39 

20.5 

Others 

82 

' 

8.5 

54 

65.8 

21 

25.6 

Aggregates 

892 

167 

18.7 
of  total 

579 

64.9 

of  total 
cases. 

146 

16.3 
of  total 

Many  of  the  persons  furnishing  the  reports,  from  which  the 
above  tables  were  derived,  added  remarks,  and  a  number  of 
these  are  given  herewith.  They  represent  all  shades  of  opinion, 
but  in  general  agree  that  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  as  a  stimu- 
lus to  mental  effort  gives  bad  results,  although  they  may  be 
agreeable  as  restoratives  in  fatigue. 

Group  I.    Remarks  of  Lawyers  and  Judges. 

No.  1.  I  was  accustomed  in  earlier  life  to  see  all  wines  used 
very  freely.  I  was  led  to  think  it  as  necessary  or  usual  as  a 
clean  shirt.  At  about  forty-five  I  was  a  very  hard  worker,  and 
quite  used  up  at  times.  Sir  Henry  Thompson  suggested  to  me 
to  let  all  wine  alone,  absolutely.  For  one  or  two  years  I  drank 
nothing  —  I  now  rarely  do  —  but  drink  daily,  for  form's  sake, 
a  wineglass  of  Scotch  whiskey  and  soda  or  seltzer  water  at 
dinner. 

I  am  an  excellent  judge  of  what  is  good  in  wine,  and  have 
perhaps  an  exceptional  taste.  I  do  not  miss  wine  at  aU.  I  am 
enormously  better  without   it.     I   would   not  miss  the  use  of 


314  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Scotch  whiskey.  I  thiuk  from  this  I  suffer  no  harm.  It  is  not 
in  any  way  necessary. 

No.  2.  1  believe  I  have  never  been  under  the  influence  of 
liquor,  but  I  should  not  advise  any  one  to  follow  my  methods 
of  life.  Temperament  and  constitutional  conditions  enter  so 
largely  into  the  question  that  it  has  seemed  to  me  that  the  con- 
sumer should  be  licensed  to  drink  according  to  his  capacity 
and  not  the  dealer.  In  army  and  professional  life  I  have  seen 
moi-e  evil  result  than  good  from  the  occasional  or  rational  use 
of  liquor. 

No.  3.  Before  reaching  my  fifty-fourth  year  I  drank  wine 
freely  at  dinner  and  was  in  the  habit  of  taking  one  and  some- 
times two  drinks  of  whiskey  just  before  going  to  bed.  Since 
giving  up  whiskey,  seven  years  ago,  there  has  been  a  decided  im- 
provement in  my  health,  and  every  addition  to  the  two  glasses 
of  claret  affects  me  unfavorably.  My  best  judgment  is  that 
the  omission  of  the  claret  also  affects  me  unfavorably. 

No.  4.  I  keep  my  physical  and  mental  activity  always  on  the 
strain.  Find  a  half  bottle  of  wine  slightly  stimulating  for  a 
very  short  time,  but  invigorating  for  a  longer  period.  Am  sat- 
isfied that  wine  is  useful  as  a  food  for  body  and  for  mind,  if  the 
quantity  is  properly  graduated. 

No.  5.  For  a  person  with  a  touch  of  alcoholism,  either  in- 
herited or  acquired,  nothing  less  than  total  abstinence  is  safe. 
Alcoholism  strongly  hereditary  —  almost  never  acquired  by  use 
of  light,  still  wines  only  —  usually  by  spirits  or  champagne. 
Moderate  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  generally  safe  for  persons 
having  no  hereditary  tendency.  After  fifty,  very  beneficial. 
Men  under  thirty  better  without  it. 

No.  6.  From  personal  experience  I  should  say  that  drink 
ruins  more  men  than  any  other  form  of  indulgence.  The  con- 
stant aim  should  be  to  resti-ict  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  as 
much  as  possible  by  legislation  that  is  regulative  rather  than 
prohibitory.  Social  customs  that  are  calculated  to  cultivate  a 
taste  for  strong  drink  should  be  corrected.  Light  wines  taken 
at  meals  are  at  times  beneficial,  but  ardent  spirits  should  not  be 
drunk  on  such  occasion  or  any  other. 

No.  7.  I  believe  (in  the  U.  S.)  total  abstinence  in  youth,  fol- 
lowed (upon  attaining  manhood)  with  reasonable  indulgence  in 
stimulants,  is  not  harmful ;  that  those  who  are  much  in  the  open 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  AND  BRAIN  WORKERS.         315 

air  are  least  apt  to  be  injured  by  stimulants  ;  a  reasonable 
amount  of  wine  (if  pure)  of  the  type  generally  known  as  claret, 
I  believe  to  be  wholesome,  and  commend  its  use ;  mental  exer- 
tion should  never  follow  any  use  of  stimulant ;  the  work  may 
be  well  and  quickly  done,  but  the  waste  is  too  great ;  the  at- 
mosphere of  the  United  States  is  itself  rather  stimulating  and 
promotive  of  nervous  troubles  and  excitement,  —  a  reason  for 
slight  use  of  stimulants.  On  the  other  hand,  in  certain  parts  of 
the  country  a  condition  of  climate  exists  called  "  malarious  "  col- 
loquially, which  is  enervating  and  depressing ;  where  this  condi- 
tion exists  more  spirits  can  be  used  safely  (and  perhaps  advan- 
tageously) than  in  a  strong,  cool,  and  bracing  climate.  On  the 
whole,  I  believe  the  use  of  honest  beer  and  wine  in  moderation 
is  wholesome  ;  the  use  of  spirits  is  dangerous  from  its  tendency, 
but  a  moderate  amount  is  not  harmful  —  what  is  a  moderate 
amount  is  difficult  to  define.  The  great  danger  in  the  use  of 
spirits  is  the  tendency  to  gradually  increase  the  amount  as  the 
system  becomes  accustomed  to  the  stimulant. 

No.  8.  In  administering  the  federal  law  in  the  criminal 
courts  for  twelve  years  I  have  been  amazed  to  find  how  many 
crimes  can  be  traced  directly  or  indirectly  to  drink.  For  this, 
spirits  —  whiskey  —  is  chiefly  responsible.  Here  and  in  England 
drunkenness  is  common  and  reiiulsive.  I  cannot  recall  ever 
having  seen  a  drunken  man  or  woman  in  France.  I  attribute 
this  to  the  fact  that  in  France  the  use  of  light  wines  is  the  rule 
and  the  use  of  spirits  the  exception.  If  the  use  of  light  wines 
were  encouraged  here  by  the  abolition  of  high  tariff  duties,  and 
otherwise,  it  is  certain  that  the  use  of  whiskey  would  decrease. 
No  man,  certainly  no  hearty  man,  requires  whiskey.  One  who 
uses  it  habitually  is  unfitted  for  any  mental  work.  He  is  utterly 
unfitted  for  any  position  of  trust.  He  is  a  useless  and,  often, 
a  dangerous  member  of  society. 

Until  some  more  radical  improvement  is  possible,  and  I  fear 
that  day  is  far  distant,  I  would  have  reformers  work  along  the 
line  of  substituting  light  and  comparatively  harmless  stimulants 
for  the  "  fire-water  "  which  is  the  principal  root  of  the  evil  of 
intemperance. 

No.  9.  Am  convinced  that  a  moderate  amount  of  whiskey, 
or  gin,  claret,  or  good  ale  at  or  after  dinner  each  day  is  helpful, 
aiding  digestion,  taking  away  all  desire  to  drink  water  while 


316  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

eating,  and  apparently  answering  a  natural  desire  for  a  limited 
amount  of  alcohol,  which  taken  in  this  way  does  not  seem  to 
increase.  Such  a  regular  and  moderate  consumption  I  believe 
is  conducive  to  the  health  of  the  majority  of  men  working  and 
living  as  such  majority  do.  Especially  do  I  believe  this  true  in 
the  case  of  those  whose  vocations  necessitate  habitual  intel- 
lectual work. 

No.  10.  I  drink  when  occasion  offers,  but  have  no  craving 
for  alcohol.  I  think  I  have  a  slight  tendency  to  inflammation 
of  the  stomach,  and  that  habitual  drinking  of  spirits,  and  jjer- 
haps  wines,  would  be  injurious,  and  for  this  reason  think  the 
habitual  use  would  be  distasteful. 

I  smoke,  and  drink  coffee  to  an  extent  that  would  kill  most 
men,  but  without  visible  injury.  I  think  smoking  has  a  ten- 
dency to  make  a  man  lazy  and  contented  with  things  as  they  are, 
and  thus  has  its  good  and  bad  side.  Coffee  is  to  me  a  most 
agreeable  stimulant,  and  never  followed  by  depression  ;  tea 
would  injure  me  more  than  rum. 

No.  11.  I  think  a  moderate  use  of  light  wines  and  beers  is 
conducive  to  health,  and  helps  one  to  keep  up  his  strength  in 
time  of  need,  and  by  driving  out  heavy  liquors  would  tend  to 
promote  temperance.  The  evils  to  health  and  society  are,  I 
believe,  almost  wholly  caused  by  the  use  of  distilled  liquors. 

No.  12.  I  do  not  profess  to  be  an  expert  or  to  have  much 
knowledge  on  the  problem  under  investigation,  but  my  impres- 
sion is  that  the  occasional  use  of  spirits  is  not  injurious  to  one's 
physical  health.  Of  course  habitual  use  or  excess  at  any  time 
is  injurious,  but  for  a  man  of  sedentary  habits,  I  think  an  occa- 
sional stimulant  is  an  advantage.  My  impression  is  that  if  I 
did  not  have  children  I  would  have  a  wine,  claret,  for  instance, 
on  my  table  every  day  at  dinner ;  but  as  a  matter  of  precaution 
in  connection  with  their  training  I  do  not  have.  I  have  never 
myself  been  under  the  influence  of  liquor  that  I  know  of  in  my 
life,  and  think  I  am  but  a  type  of  a  very  large  number  of  men 
in  my  sphere  of  life.  I  am  quite  clear  that  such  use  as  I  have 
made  of  liquor  has  been  beneficial. 

No.  13.  From  observation  I  conclude  that  a  majority  of  men 
over  forty-five  years  old,  who  can  digest  spirits,  wine,  or  beer, 
are  benefited  by  the  moderate  use  of  either  of  these  articles. 
Of  course  there  can  be  no  universal  rule  as  to  what  quantity 


ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  AND  BRAIN  WORKERS.  317 

will  be  beneficial.  I  am  also  willing  to  believe  that  the  use 
of  drink  by  those  under  forty-five  is  not,  on  the  whole,  detri- 
mental. 

No.  14.  For  a  long  time  I,  habitually,  took  a  drink  or  two 
between  breakfast  and  dinner,  usually  whiskey,  and  generally 
without  eating.  I  became  satisfied  that  this  practice  was  inju- 
rious, producing  dyspepsia,  and  impairing  working  capacity. 
The  claret  and  water  which  I  now  drink  at  dinner  seems  to  go 
to  the  right  place,  but  I  am  satisfied  that  stronger  liquor  would 
do  me  no  good.  With  the  excejjtion  of  yellow  fever,  in  1867, 
and  dengue  in  1880,  I  have  never  been  sick. 

No.  15.  From  my  personal  experience  should  say  that,  aside 
from  the  matter  of  sociability,  it  would  have  been  better  for  me, 
enjoying  good  health,  not  to  have  drunk  at  all,  and  my  advice 
to  the  young  would  be  not  to  begin  to  use  alcoholic  drinks  in 
any  form. 

No.  16.  I  was  never  intoxicated  in  the  slightest  degree  in  my 
life.  I  can,  and  occasionally  do,  at  a  club  dinner,  drink  more 
than  most  men,  and  know  that  I  feel  it  less.  Before  I  have 
any  effects  from  drinking  my  stomach  rebels  and  rejects  its  con- 
tents. This  has  happened  to  me  three  times.  On  each  occasion 
I  was  very  tired,  and  had  eaten  extravagantly  as  well  as  drunk 
a  great  deal. 

From  my  observation,  I  am  sure  of  one  thing.  There  are 
many  men  who  are  strangely  affected  by  one  drink.  After  one 
drink  they  seem  to  lose  all  control  of  themselves  and  proceed  to 
get  drunk.  These  are  generally  men  of  weak  physical  vitality. 
Drink  ruins  them  physically  and  mentally.  After  drinking  it 
is  some  time  before  they  recover  their  normal  condition,  and 
that  is  bad.  Such  men  should  never  drink  at  all.  Among  the 
men  of  good  general  physical  condition  with  whom  I  associate, 
I  should  say  that  ninety  per  cent,  were  moderate  drinkers,  and 
that  not  ten  per  cent,  of  these  are  at  all  injured  by  it. 

No.  17.  I  think  moderate  drinking  not  injurious.  I  think 
as  one  grows  older  he  desires  wine  less  and  needs  it  more.  I 
have  never  drank  enough  to  be  able  to  describe  the  effects  of 
drink. 

No.  18.  I  believe  that  a  man  of  ordinary  health  is  not  bene- 
fited by  the  use  of  liquors  when  under  forty-five  years  of  age. 
I  believe  that  the  proper  use  of  liquors  as  a  general  thing  is  the 


318  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

very  best  form  of  stimulant  that  has  yet  been  discovered ;  and 
that  the  abuse  of  such  stimulant  is  the  worst  thing  in  the 
world  ;  and  that  no  kind  of  prohibitory  law  can  or  will  reach  the 
evil. 

No.  19.  I  have  chronic  dyspepsia  which  has  tormented  me 
for  years.  I  carry  around  a  little  hell.  I  have  found  the  reg- 
ular consumption  of  whiskey  in  very  moderate  amounts  of  enor- 
mous value  to  me.  It  has  tided  me  over  a  thousand  seasons  of 
pain  and  left  no  ill  effects  or  weakness.  Beer  I  cannot  touch, 
nor  was  I  ever  able  to  drink  it  regularly.  When  I  was  younger 
I  drank  moderately  various  kinds  of  wine,  but  found  I  had  to 
give  up  one  after  another,  and  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  safest  and  best  drink  is  Scotch  whiskey.  I  believe  that  if 
I  were  to  give  up  its  use  my  health  would  suffer  materially. 

No.  20.  I  believe  that  the  daily  use  of  spirits,  wine,  or  beer 
is  neither  necessary  nor  beneficial  to  any  man  in  a  good  normal 
condition  of  health.  I  believe  in  their  use  only  to  a  limited 
extent  as  a  social  function  and  for  their  medicinal  effect. 

No.  21.  I  never  knew  any  person  in  health  who  was  not  in- 
juriously affected  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  the  daily  use  of 
spii'its,  wine,  or  beer,  except  old  persons,  to  whom  it  is  in  many 
cases  of  benefit  when  taken  in  moderation. 

My  observation  has  been  somewhat  extensive,  my  personal 
experience  limited,  although  I  am  not  a  teetotaler.  The  result 
of  both  is  that  the  regular  consumption  of  a  moderate  quantity 
of  whiskey,  wine,  or  beer  is  not  conducive  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  health  and  working  power  of  any  class  of  men,  at  least 
until  the  effect  of  old  age  begins  to  be  felt ;  that  occasionally 
each  is  useful  as  a  stimulant,  but  that  all  other  use  tends  to 
diminish  the  health  and  working  power  of  all  classes  of  men. 

I  do  not  think  that  the  average  man  in  good  health,  in  this 
country,  may  consume  daily  any  quantity  of  whiskey,  wine,  or 
beer  without  more  or  less  risk  of  eventually  injuring  his  health  ; 
because  the  constant  use  of  any  stimulant  soon  brings  the 
system  into  an  abnormal  condition,  and  no  man  in  an  abnormal 
condition  can  be  properly  said  to  be  in  good  health.  He  is 
only  in  good  health  so  long  as  his  natural  vitality  and  vigor  suf- 
fice, without  artificial  reinforcement,  for  the  demands  which  his 
daily  life  makes  upon  him,  at  least  until  his  powers  are  affected 
by  his  age. 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  AND  BRAIN  WORKERS.  319 

No.  22.  I  cannot  find  that  the  consumption  of  a  moderate  quan- 
tity of  whiskey,  beer,  or  wine  either  helps  or  hurts  the  health. 
In  case  of  physical  exhaustion  or  mental  languor  I  do  not  doubt 
that  a  moderate  amount  of  spirits  has  a  stimulating  and  benefi- 
cial effect. 

No.  23.  Speaking  generally,  find  abstinence  better  for  phy- 
sical condition  than  daily  drinking  would  be.  Find  occasional 
use  of  wine,  beer,  and  spirits  beneficial,  e.  g.  contrast  a  dinner 
party  without  wines  with  one  where  wine  is  served. 

No.  24.  My  own  disposition  is  against  the  regular  daily  use 
of  drink.  From  my  own  limited  experience  I  should  say  that 
after  forty  or  forty-five  years  of  age  an  occasional  use  of  stimu- 
lant for  a  properly  balanced  man  is  promotive  of  health.  I 
question  whether  the  "  working  power  "  of  a  man  is  inci'eased 
one  atom  by  drink,  except  as  it  may  preserve  general  health. 

I  deprecate  its  use  "  as  a  social  function  "  as  inducing  most 
people  to  use  it  before  their  decreasing  powers  indicate  its  need. 
I  think  the  loose  American  habit  of  "  treating"  resjDonsible  for 
a  great  deal  of  useless  drinking. 

No.  25.  If  spirits  and  wine  could  be  always  used  in  small 
and  temperate  quantities,  there  would  be,  probably,  no  evil  re- 
sults ;  but  the  use  of  either,  and  of  beer,  is  dangerous  for  young 
people.  I  regard  the  social  punch-bowl  as  the  source  of  much 
intemperance.  The  moderate  use  of  spirits  and  wine,  especially 
the  latter,  after  one  has  reached  the  age  of  forty  or  fifty,  I  re- 
gard as  wholesome  and  harmless. 

No.  26.  Do  not  believe  that  the  use  of  spirits,  etc.,  is  neces- 
sary to  the  maintenance  of  health,  or  conduces  thereto,  except 
in  rare  cases. 

Believe  that  the  quantity  of  spirits,  etc.,  which  a  man  in  good 
health  may  consume  daily  without  injury  to  health,  depends 
upon  climate  and  occupation,  and  much  less  upon  age,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  very  young  and  very  old.  Do  not  believe 
stimulants  should  be  used  duiing  the  "growing  age." 

No.  27.  I  consider  the  moderate  use  of  whiskey  now  bene- 
ficial to  me  ;  but  have  always  found  the  constant  use  of  beer, 
ale,  and  especially  porter,  injurious  to  my  digestive  organs. 

I  believe  the  excessive  use  of  ardent  spirits  so  injurious  to  the 
community  that  laws  restrictive  of  liquor  selling  are  advisable. 

No.  28.    Think  moderate  use  of  beer,  wine,  or  liquor,  not 


320  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

injurious,  depending  on  a  man's  physique,  in  some  cases  de- 
cidedly beneficial. 

No.  29.  My  mind  never  works  as  actively  or  as  clearly,  either 
in  my  profession  or  in  any  matter  of  practical  every-day  judg- 
ment, after  partaking,  however  slightly,  of  any  alcoholic  drink. 
Having  a  natural  tendency  to  stoutness,  beer  makes  me  heavy 
and  sleepy,  and  I  accordingly  avoid  it  wholly,  except  occa- 
sionally in  very  cold  weather  when  I  am  going  to  get  plenty  of 
exercise  after  it,  as  in  walking  or  skating.  I  enjoy  good  wines 
occasionally  at  dinner  in  the  evening,  but  I  always  feel  the  next 
day  as  if  I  had  lost  a  little  ground  which  I  must  make  up,  and 
I  do  so  in  twenty-four  hours ;  but  I  would  not  on  any  account 
drink  wine  every  day  or  habitually.  I  don't  believe  in  it  at  all, 
although  I  am  confident  that  I  possess  full  self-control  against 
any  excess  ;  but  I  should  n't  care  to  risk  the  gradual  and  imper- 
ceptible loss  which  I  think  must  come  with  habitual  use. 

No.  30.  My  opinion  is  that  a  nervous  man  who  is  a  brain 
worker  should  be  a  total  abstainer.  I  regard  any  man  as  in 
danger  who  drinks  spirits  for  the  sake  of  the  exhilaration. 

No.  31.  For  twenty  years  nearly  I  have  taken  a  little  ordi- 
nary table  claret  at  my  dinner,  and  I  think  it  has  been  of  service 
to  me.  Could  all  drinking  of  that  which  may  intoxicate  be  lim- 
ited to  our  dining,  and  as  moderate  as  my  use  has  been,  I  think 
health  would  be  promoted  and  no  evil  effects  result. 

No.  32.  As  a  general  rule,  I  do  not  believe  that  the  regular 
consumption  of  a  moderate  quantity  of  whiskey,  wine,  or  beer 
is  conducive  to  the  maintenance  of  health  and  working  power 
in  any  class  of  men.  To  this  general  rule,  however,  I  think 
there  are  individual  exceptions. 

Group  II.     Remarks  of  Physicians. 

No.  1.  The  experience  of  over  twenty-five  years  as  a  physi- 
cian has  firmly  convinced  me  that  active  men,  who  from  habit, 
inclination,  or  force  of  circumstances  take  but  a  light  morning 
and  noon  meal  and  a  hearty  dinner  at  night  may  take  wine  or 
spirit  of  moderate  amount  with  their  dinner  without  injurious 
effects,  and,  probably,  with  benefit  in  some  cases. 

Except  as  above  stated,  I  do  not  think  the  daily  use  of  spirit 
fails  to  injure  the  average  man.  A  glass  of  sherry  (one  ounce) 
or  claret  (two  ounces)  or  beer  (one  pint)  may  be  taken  with 
dinner  by  most  men  without  noticeable  injury. 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  AND  BRAIN  WORKERS.  321 

No.  2.  Twenty-five  years  of  observation  of  "  Life  Risks  " 
leads  me  to  think  that  the  habitual  daily  use  of  undiluted  spirits 
(whiskey)  impairs  longevity.  Total  abstainers,  who  have  for- 
merly indulged  to  excess,  are  poor  risks.  A  very  moderate, 
temperate  use  of  light  wines,  or  diluted  spirits,  especially  after 
the  age  of  fifty-five,  is  more  conducive  to  longevity  than  is  total 
abstinence,  so  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge. 

No.  3.  I  find  equal  jjarts  of  Rhine  wine  and  seltzer  water 
"  agrees  "  with  me  better  than  either  tea  or  coffee  for  luncheon, 
"  a  very  light  meal." 

Professionally  I  find  many  men,  who  cannot  use  spirits  or 
beer  without  digestive  disturbance,  can  use  light  white  sour 
wines  diluted  with  some  alkaline  mineral  water  with  actual 
benefit.  I  prescribe  them  for  such  cases  when  there  is  no 
"  moral  hazard  "  of  forming  a  habit. 

I  believe  no  healthy  man  under  fifty  needs  any  form  of  alcohol 
habitually.  Many  healthy  men  vuider  fifty  can  use  it  daily  in 
moderation  (say  Anstie's  limit)  without  damage  to  their  tissues, 
but  without  physical  or  mental  benefit.  The  unfavorable  results 
of  this  form  of  indulgence  may  appear  in  their  children. 

I  have  no  question  that  many  men  under  fifty  are  injured  by 
the  habitual  use  of  alcohol  (always  in  moderation).  I  have 
seen  many  cases  of  dyspepsia  and  lithsemia  undoubtedly  caused 
by  its  use,  and  in  man}'  constitutions  it  predisposes  to  cardio- 
vascular changes,  premature  atheroma  and  its  consequences. 

I  may  add  that  I  doubt  if  the  habit  of  over-indulgence  is 
likely  to  be  acquired  in  the  class  of  cases  above  mentioned,  for 
the  reason  that  the  alcohol  is  usually  taken  with  meals ;  hence 
no  immediate  and  acutely  stimulating  effect  on  the  nervous 
system  is  produced. 

No.  4.  I  have  commencing  cardiac  and  aortic  degeneration, 
which  has  been  a  very  common  cause  of  death  among  my  rela- 
tives. 

I  am  better  in  body,  mind,  and  disposition,  when  I  use  alcohol 
in  moderation.  Those  who  live  with  me  are  as  much  convinced 
of  this  fact  as  I  am.  I  was  several  years  ago  led  to  the  use  of 
liquor  above  described  by  the  advice  of  the  well  known  total 
abstainer,  Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson,  of  London.  Were  it  not  for 
my  recognized  obligation,  as  a  member  of  the  Church  Temper- 
ance Society,  to  use  only  the  smallest  quantity  of  alcohol  that  I 


322  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

need,  I  should  take  at  least  once  daily,  at  meal-time,  the  equiva- 
lent of  from  one  to  two  glasses  of  sherry.  I  have  no  question 
that  my  bodily  health  would  be  in  every  way  improved,  and  I 
may  yet  decide  to  do  this. 

Individuals  who  are  strong  and  well  in  body  and  mind  are 
better  without  any  alcohol.  The  enfeebled  of  either  sex,  with- 
out distinction  of  years,  are  often  greatly  helped  by  using  it  in 
connection  with  food,  under  competent  and  conscientious  medi- 
cal guidance.  It  is,  however,  impossible  to  say  this  truthfully, 
unless  at  the  same  moment  one  insists  upon  the  constant  risk 
to  health  and  self-control  which  goes  with  any  transgressing  of 
these  medical  limits.  Thus,  I  have  often  known  in  urgent 
disease,  the  so-called  "  heroic  "  employment  of  alcohol  to  be  in- 
dispensable to  the  saving  of  life ;  and  yet  in  certain  instances 
as  soon  as  the  illness  disappeared  even  the  smallest  use  of  this 
agent  did  harm. 

Further,  the  duty  which  weighs  upon  all  medical  advisers 
to  insist  as  rigidly  upon  the  abandonment  of  alcohol  when 
health  is  restored,  as  to  enjoin  a  resort  to  it  in  time  of  need, 
well  shows  the  extreme  difficulty  of  replying  to  this  inquiry  in 
any  way  but  conditionally.  In  like  manner,  in  the  case  of 
young  persons,  with  habits  of  life  still  unformed,  the  beneficial 
and  necessary  employment  of  stimulants  involves  extreme  risks, 
which  can  never  be  disregarded. 

Alcoholic  stimulants  taken  in  place  of  food,  or  rather  to  avoid 
eating,  are  wholly  to  be  condemned.  Used  with  food  they  are 
beneficial  just  so  far  as  they,  like  condiments,  salt,  pepper, 
spices,  improve  the  digestion  (in  the  full  medical  sense)  of  the 
individual.  In  every  instance  the  smallest  quantity  that  will 
produce  that  result  is  to  be  distinctly  preferred.  It  is  then 
impossible  to  fix  a  uniform  safe  standard,  as  the  second  ques- 
tion seems  to  demand. 

The  same  rules  apply  here  as  in  every  other  permitted  indul- 
gence of  the  body ;  less  rather  than  more ;  constant  effort  at 
self-control ;  if  the  body  is  to  be  profited :  temperate  use,  not 
uncompromising  refusal. 

No.  5.  In  Germany  I  drank  a  glass  of  beer  every  day  at  dinner, 
at  home  here  I  drank  occasionally  at  a  public  dinner  or  with  a 
guest  at  home  a  glass  of  wine,  for  say  fifteen  or  twenty  years.  For 
perhaps  five  to  ten  years  I  took  a  drink  of  whiskey  on  going  to 


ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  AND  BRAIN  WORKERS.  323 

bed  that  I  might  secure  sleep  at  once.  I  think  I  began  to  feel 
effects  from  it  in  an  excitable  condition  of  the  heart.  I  found 
also  that  I  could  not  work  so  well,  became  easier  fatigued,  had 
less  inclination  to  work.  I  found  also  that  alcohol  in  any  form 
stimulated  the  use  of  tobacco,  which  encouraged  languor  and 
dreamy  indolent  states.  So  I  quit  both  absolutely  three  years 
ago,  and  have  been  better,  brighter,  and  stronger  ever  since, 
with  nearly  double  working  capacity. 

No.  6.  I  believe  fermented  drinks  are  unnecessary  in  ordi- 
nary life  ;  they  do  not  give  real  strength  or  endurance  ;  that 
many  may  use  these  moderately  without  any  deleterious  effect 
on  shortening  of  life  I  fully  believe  ;  but  many  on  the  other  hand 
demonstrate  the  evil  effects.  They  are  a  most  expensive  luxury, 
which  people  of  moderate  means  should  not  indulge  in. 

I  believe  that  people  who  do  hard  but  outdoor  work  can  far 
better  resist  the  bad  effects  on  the  health  than  those  of  seden- 
tary habits. 

No.  7.  The  less  alcoholic  drinks  taken,  the  better.  If  a 
stimulant  is  needed,  black  coffee  or  tea  are  the  best.  The  con- 
stitution of  the  drinker  has  perhaps  more  to  do  with  the  effects, 
near  and  remote,  than  the  quantity  taken.  Example  has  more 
to  do  with  the  habit  than  a  really  great  desire. 

Food  of  good  quality  and  quantity,  properly  cooked  and  ap- 
petizing, is  the  best  stimulant  for  work  ;  alcoholic  drinks  are 
but  the  lash  to  the  horse. 

No.  8.  I  believe  that  my  distaste  for  strong  liquor  is  heredi- 
tary. All  my  ancestors  are  Catalonians  and  have  been  very 
sober,  frugal,  and  industrious.  I  have  known  of  no  habitual 
drunkard  in  my  immediate  family  either  on  the  paternal  or 
maternal  side.  I  have  never  felt  that  wine  or  alcohol  in  any 
shape  was  necessary  for  my  physical  or  intellectual  welfare.  I 
enjoy  the  fragrant  bouquet  of  the  French  liqueurs  (Benedictine, 
Chartreuse,  etc.)  and  the  sweet  wines  of  southern  Spain  (Mal- 
aga, Alicante,  etc.),  but  merely  after  a  social  gathering  at  table. 
On  such  occasions  the  contagion  of  example  and  the  stimulus 
of  conviviality  adds  greatly  to  the  inherent  qualities  of  the  wine, 
and  to  the  pleasure  of  its  use. 

I  am  convinced  from  personal  experience  that  the  regular 
consumption  of  even  a  moderate  quantity  of  whiskey,  wine,  or 
beer  is  not  necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  health  and  working 


324  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

power  in  any  class  of  men ;  and  that  even  tlie  moderate  but 
habitual  indulgence  in  the  stronger  liquors  (whiskey,  brandy, 
gin,  and  rum)  is  injurious  to  health. 

I  consider  that  heredity  and  environment  are  most  important 
determining  factors  in  the  problem  ;  and  under  the  head  of  en- 
vironment I  would  especially  refer  to  the  notable  neurasthenic 
tendencies  that  are  being  progressively  manifested  by  the  most 
civilized  races  under  the  strain  and  friction  of  the  conditions  of 
our  present  civilization. 

No.  9.  When  exhausted  by  over  mental  work  stimulants 
seem  to  revive  without  doing  me  harm.  I  have  never  used  them 
prior  to  mental  work  and  do  not  know  what  effect  on  it  they 
would  have.  I  think  four  ounces  of  whiskey  would  be  benefi- 
cial rather  than  harmful  to  a  man  able  to  control  appetite.  In 
old  age  I  believe  four  to  six  ounces  of  whiskey  daily  decidedly 
beneficial.  I  oppose  the  use  of  stimulants  before  the  age  of 
thirty-five,  and  always  forbid  it  to  nervous  people  who  are  very 
susceptible. 

No.  10.  I  find  it  desirable  to  keep  my  organism  absolutely 
free  from  alcohol,  whenever  I  intend  to  do  hard  mental  work. 
On  the  whole,  I  feel  best,  more  vigorous,  and  am  in  better  spir- 
its when  I  totally  abstain.  I  also  sleep  better,  but  on  the  other 
hand,  occasional  attacks  of  sleeplessness  are  easily  overcome 
by  alcohol  (beer).  It  looks  as  if  I  am  drifting  towards  total 
abstinence. 

No.  11.  I  had  a  long  siege  of  septicaemia  with  glandular  in- 
fection and  rheumatism.  Used  whiskey,  three  or  four  ounces 
daily,  with  few  exceptions,  for  many  weeks  with  apparent  bene- 
fit ;  certainly  it  added  to  my  comfort.  I  have  for  ten  years 
used  occasionally,  when  very  tired  or  exhausted  by  special 
labor,  whiskey  (or  wine),  in  moderate  quantity,  with  benefit.  I 
rarely  get  much  fatigued,  and  have  worked  very  hard  for  many 
years. 

I  think  stimulants  affect  most  favorably  men  of  middle  age 
who  have  been  temperate  in  their  youth. 

No.  12.  My  personal  observation,  experience,  and  convictions 
are  that  the  custom  of  treating  at  the  bar,  and  the  existence  of 
liquor  saloons  are  responsible  for  three  fourths  of  the  excessive 
use  of  liquor.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  tracing  the  downward 
course  of  many  men  in  this  city  of  high  education  who  first  be- 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS   AND   BRAIN   WORKERS.  325 

came  victims  of  the  drink  habit  through  invitations  to  the  bar 
and  acquiescence  in  the  system  of  treating. 

No.  13.  There  can  be  no  questioning,  I  think,  the  fact  that 
the  daily  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  predisposes  to  chronic 
gastritis  and  diseases  of  the  liver  and  kidneys. 

No.  14.  My  father,  a  lawyer  in  large  practice  and  of  inde- 
fatigable industry,  was  accustomed  to  take  about  two  thirds  of 
a  bottle  of  port  wine  every  day  (he  was  an  Englishman).  He 
drank  three  or  four  glasses  with  dinner  and  the  remainder  be- 
fore going  to  bed.  He  retired  from  practice  in  his  76th  year, 
and  died  in  his  91st  year  of  mere  age. 

Moderation,  not  abstinence,  and  the  best  quality  of  wines, 
etc.,  had  much  to  do  with  this  happy  condition. 

No.  15.  Many  men  after  fifty  are  benefited  by  the  moder- 
ate use  of  alcoholic  liquid,  not  exceeding  two  ounces  of  alcohol 
daily  ;  but  no  one  is  free  from  danger  of  excess,  and,  therefore, 
its  continuous  use  is  always  dangerous.  Have  known  many 
habitual  consumers  to  excess  daily,  and  especially  at  night 
(night-caps)  who  have  lived  to  advanced  age  in  apparent  per- 
fect and  vigorous  health.  They  were  habitual  consumers  who 
never  exceeded  a  certain  amount  —  but  always  took  that 
amount. 

No.  16.  From  my  experience  during  a  very  active  life  of 
twenty-six  years  of  medical  practice,  I  have  reached  the  con- 
clusion that  the  regular  consumption  of  a  moderate  or  even 
small  quantity  of  whiskey,  wine,  or  beer  is  not  conducive  to  the 
most  perfect  health  or  the  highest  working  power  in  my  pro- 
fession or  in  any  walk  in  life.  In  the  conditions  of  life  in 
cities,  I  believe  the  most  effective  work  is  performed  by  total 
abstainers  from  alcohol,  but  that  the  greatest  harm  is  done  to 
men  of  sedentary  pursuits,  and  to  those  who  through  the  stim- 
ulus of  alcohol  consume  a  larger  quantity  of  nitrogenous  food 
than  they  would  otherwise  take.  It  is  in  these  cases  that  lithae- 
mia  is  produced  with  its  many  attendant  functional  disturb- 
ances. Leaving  out  of  consideration  all  the  harm  done  by 
alcohol  in  excess,  the  injury  done  by  moderate  regular  indul- 
gence is  incalculable.  Almost  all  the  ill  health  in  men  beyond 
forty  is  associated  with  alcoholic  indulgence  and  with  impru- 
dent or  excessive  eating  in  association  with  it.  Chronic  inter- 
stitial nephritis,  a  disease  very  frequently  met  with,  is  almost  in 


326  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

every  instance  the  direct  result  of  these  antecedents.  A  man 
who  leads  an  active  outdoor  life  may  consume  with  impunity  a 
limited  quantity  (three  or  four  glasses  of  claret  as  a  maximum, 
or  two  ounces  of  whiskey),  but  he  is  all  the  worse  for  the  habit 
so  far  as  his  working  capacity  is  concerned.  Beyond  sixty 
years,  and  in  a  northern  or  cool  climate,  such  indulgence  is  at- 
tended with  much  less  chance  of  injury ;  but  in  all  ages  and  in 
all  climates  alcohol  is  in  my  opinion  not  conducive  to,  does  not 
aid  in  producing,  the  most  perfect  health.  A  man  is  in  perfect 
health  in  spite  of,  and  not  by  the  help  of,  alcoholic  drinks. 

Group  III.     Remakks  of  Clergymen. 

No.  1.  I  have  taken  a  light  wine,  claret  or  hock,  continu- 
ously for  months,  and  then  desisted  for  as  long,  or  a  longer 
period,  because  my  system  seemed  not  to  require  it,  —  or  even 
to  resent  it.  I  have  taken  beer  in  the  evening  before  retiring, 
similarly  for  a  period  of  some  months,  and  then  desisted  as 
having  no  desire  for  it.  It  is  quite  the  exception  for  me  to 
take  either  beer  or  wine.  I  have  found  that  a  little  good 
whiskey  diluted  with  water,  taken  before  retiring,  conduces  to 
sleep,  when  I  am  working  hard,  and  seems  to  have  no  ill  effect. 
The  last  I  think  better  than  wine  or  American  beer,  but  I  have 
no  fixed  habit  in  the  matter,  and  without  inconvenience  abstain 
entirely,  except  that  if  I  abstain  entirely  while  woi-king  hard 
and  late  at  night  I  am  not  likely  to  sleep  well.  I  have  a  sin- 
gularly healthy  and  sensitive  constitution  ;  a  slight  increase  of 
whiskey  will  give  me  headache ;  but  from  two  to  four  table- 
spoonfuls  (the  maximum  quantity)  can  be  taken  with  impu- 
nity and  with  the  result  of  giving  me  sleep. 

No.  2.  The  result  with  me  is  increasing  doubt  of  the  value 
of  habitual  daily  use  of  any  stimulant,  and  increasing  convic- 
tion of  the  value  of  occasional  use. 

No.  3.  From  what  I  have  seen  I  believe  that  men  who  use 
stimulants  sparingly  are  in  better  health  than  those  who  are 
abstainers. 

No.  4.  My  belief,  based  solely  on  personal  experience,  is  that 
temperate  use  of  stimulants  is  a  good  thing.  I  find  no  grow- 
ing taste,  nor  increasing  demand  for  liquor.  Family  always 
have  used  liquor  temperately  —  no  drunkards  known  in  it  for 
several  generations. 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  AND   BRAIN   WORKERS.  327 

No.  5.  From  personal  experience  of  thirty-five  years  in  the 
pastorate,  the  drink  habit,  in  any  degree,  from  beginning  to  end, 
is  a  curse,  and  in  some  member  of  the  household  of  the  poor  is 
responsible  for  a  large  share  of  poverty  as  it  confronts  church 
benevolence. 

No.  6.  When  my  two  sons  were  ten  years  old  I  was  con- 
fronted with  the  question  of  what  I  should  teach  them  on  this 
question.  I  desired  to  teach  them  both  by  precept  and  exam- 
ple that  judgment  which  I  believed  to  be  upon  the  whole  the 
safest.  Should  I  teach  them  "  total  abstinence  ?  "  or  "  temper- 
ance ?  "  There  is  peril  either  way.  I  chose  temperance  as  the 
lesser  of  the  two  dangers.  I  think  the  result  has  vindicated  my 
decision. 

As  a  clergyman  I  have  avoided  the  position  of  a  "  total  ab- 
stainer," because  I  have  found  that  men  who  are  in  danger 
from  drink  will  listen  to  me  when  they  know  that  I  am  a  rea- 
sonable man,  and  will  not  so  readily  allow  themselves  to  be 
remonstrated  with  by  a  total  abstainer. 

No.  7.  My  experience  goes  to  show  that  after  overwork,  or 
when  digestion  is  disturbed  by  irregular  hours,  a  moderate 
amount  of  sjiirit  is  a  restorative  and  a  sleep  producer.  I  ex- 
perience only  good  results  from  this  practice. 

No.  8.  Never  saw  any  good  to  bodily  health,  mental  vigor, 
or  moral  development  from  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  ;  but  on 
the  contrary  have  seen  a  great  deal  of  injury  to  body,  mind,  and 
moral  nature  by  its  use. 

No.  9.  It  is  my  candid  conviction,  from  my  experience,  that 
no  one  to  my  knowledge  has  ever  received  any  permanent  gain 
to  health,  if  even  temporary  relief  from  pain,  by  the  use  of  alco- 
holic drinks.  It  has  proved  destructive  to  all  whom  I  know  as 
habitual  drinkers.  I  feel  that  it  is  no  great  credit  to  me  that 
I  am  a  total  abstainer  since  I  have  never  had  the  least  inclina- 
tion to  drink,  the  smeU  of  rum  or  beer  rather  nauseating  me. 

Group  IV.     Remarks  of  Scientific    Men,  Teachers,   Business 
Men,  ajstd  Others. 

No.  1.  My  own  experience  would  indicate  that  the  moderate 
use  of  alcoholic  beverages  of  various  kinds  may  be  occasionally 
beneficial,  though  I  have  always  seriously  doubted  whether  or 
not  the  temporary  stimulus  was  not  succeeded  by  a  correspond- 


328  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

iiig  reaction.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  much  depends  on  the 
individual  idiosyncracy,  and  on  the  conditions  of  life  and  the 
climate.  I  have  never  felt  better  than  when  indulging  moder- 
ately in  such  beverages  with  the  people  who  habitually  so  in- 
dulge, and  during  the  time  when  I  was  leading  an  outdoor  life. 
I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  indoor  life  and  especially  seden- 
tary habits  and  mental  occupation  make  it  necessary  to  be  very 
frugal  in  the  use  of  such  alcoholic  beverages ;  and  that  the  in- 
direct effect  of  the  alcoholic  habit,  when  it  becomes  a  necessity, 
altogether  offsets  any  temporary  benefit  that  may  otherwise 
accrue  to  the  moderate  drinker. 

No.  2.  My  conclusion  from  my  observation  is  that  whiskey  is 
one  of  the  best  drugs  in  the  pharmacopoeia  and  one  of  the  most 
dangerous  beverages  ever  discovered  or  used.  Malt  liquors  are 
excellent  tonics  in  convalescence.  The  habit  of  drinking  them 
surely  leads  to  excess.  In  my  own  experience  the  use  of  liquor 
has  never  done  much  good  or  harm,  except  in  convalescence, 
when  it  has  benefited  me.  It  has  not  done  my  constitution 
any  permanent  injury.  Its  moral  effects  are  injurious.  It  leads 
to  indiscreet  words  and  acts.  With  certain  persons  it  not  only 
unbalances  the  judgment,  but  produces  a  homicidal  tendency 
and  other  criminal  tendencies. 

Nearly  all  the  crime  in  the  South  has  its  origin  in  whiskey. 
So  much  am  I  convinced  of  this  that  if  the  enforcement  of  pro- 
hibitory laws  was  possible  I  would  strenuously  advocate  them. 
With  us  much  good  is  effected  by  local  option.  Unless  the 
negroes  can  be  rescued  from  the  abuse  of  whiskey,  their  lot  will 
become  intolerable. 

No.  3.  My  experience  as  a  mining  man  has  satisfied  me  that 
while  good  liquors  are  very  valuable  medicines  and  should  al- 
ways be  obtainable,  their  habitual  use,  even  in  strict  modera- 
tion, by  working  men  is  a  mistake.  I  have  not  found  that 
alcohol  increases  working  power,  physical  or  mental.  When  I 
had  to  make  sudden  demands  upon  men  for  heavy,  uninter- 
rupted work  of  long  duration,  such  as  can  occur  in  breakdowns 
of  machinery,  fires,  etc.,  I  have  given  plenty  of  tea  or  coffee  or 
soup  during  the  work,  but  no  alcohol  until  the  job  was  finished. 
Thus  given  it  is  very  beneficial,  as  it  gets  the  system  over  the 
"  dead  centre  "  when,  as  the  men  express  it,  "  they  are  too 
tired  to  eat." 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  AND  BRAIN  WORKERS.  329 

I  am  strongly  in  favor  of  a  rigid  but  intelligent  restriction 
of  the  liquor  traffic.  Where  this  has  existed,  either  by  law  or 
circumstances,  I  have  had  little  difficulty  in  practically  abol- 
ishing drunkenness  among  my  men,  not  only  during  working 
hours,  but  also  during  the  nights  of  the  week,  although  liquor 
could  always  be  obtained.  Even  on  Sundays  and  holidays  the 
amount  of  drunkenness  was  rarely  very  serious.  Never  al- 
lowed liquor  to  be  sold  on  my  land,  and  in  this,  as  in  all  other 
measures  for  repressing  drinking,  had  always  the  full  support 
of  my  men,  who  were  a  rough  set  of  whites  and  negroes, 
some  of  them  ex-convicts,  some  notorious  ruffians  when  drunk. 

No.  4.  My  observation  leads  me  to  believe  that  any  one  is 
unfortunate  who  contracts  a  habit  of  regular  drinking,  even  if 
it  be  moderate.  I  believe  the  constant  use  of  beer  to  be  injuri- 
ous to  health  ;  but  not  so  with  a  very  moderate  use  of  pure 
wines.  I  think  the  use  of  distilled  liquors  always  dangerous, 
but  in  very  moderate  quantities  not  injurious  to  health.  I  do 
not  believe  in  prohibitory  laws,  but  in  teaching  and  practicing 
temperance. 

No.  5.  I  never  found  that  it  helped  me  at  all  towards  doing- 
work  to  drink  at  the  time.  I  cannot  speak  or  write  as  well 
after  taking  even  a  moderate  amount  of  alcoholic  liquors  or 
wines.  What  I  take  I  do  for  my  general  condition.  My 
digestion  has  improved  markedly  since  I  exchanged  claret 
(which  had  come  to  produce  flatulency)  for  Scotch  whiskey. 
After  severe  exposure  I  should  always  take  stimulants  to  pre- 
vent cold  or  undue  depression ;  but  not  to  do  work  upon. 
With  food  I  thoroughly  believe  in  a  moderate  amount  of  wines 
or  other  stimulant  for  all  persons  at  least  who  are  past  the 
period  of  superabundant  activity.  As  to  taking  things  at 
night  I  have  my  doubts  ;  but  I  do  it  for  myself  because  I  like 
it,  and  because  I  am  well  and  hearty  under  that  system. 

No.  6.  From  my  observation  both  in  Europe  (Belgium, 
France  (Germany  more  especially),  I  have  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  moderate  drinking  of  light  wines  and  beer  is  not  con- 
ducive to  intemperance. 

No.  7.  Alcoholic  stimulants,  whatever  their  nature,  must 
invariably,  and  in  any  quantity,  affect  the  brain  more  or  less 
favorably  or  unfavorably,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  par- 
taker.   Sometimes  one  glass  of  beer  will  affect  me  unpleasantly, 


330  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

at  other  times  I  may  drink  four  to  six  and  feel  the  better  for 
it  bodily  and  mentally.  Sometimes  wine  stimulates  my  brain 
power  to  greater  activity  ;  at  other  times  it  incapacitates  me  for 
mental  work.  I  have  known  men  who  needed  the  stimulus  to 
accomplish  certain  mental  exertion.  The  momentary  condition 
and  disposition  of  bodily  and  mental  functions  modifies  the 
effect. 

If  I  may  briefly  add  my  views  from  the  ethical  and  legisla- 
tive point,  I  consider  the  moderate  use  of  stimulants  (i.  e. 
light  wines  and  beers)  as  legitimate  enjoyments  of  life,  just  as 
music  and  art,  coffee  and  cigars,  candy  and  cake. 

Abstinence  from  fear  of  excess  argues  a  defective  moral 
power  which  should  be  educated,  or  else  of  bodily  disease ;  ab- 
stinence from  lack  of  enjoyment  shows  defective  development 
of  capacities  to  enjoy. 

As  to  legislative  action,  I  believe  in  restriction  or  rather  reg- 
ulation of  the  liquor  traffic  on  the  same  principle  as  powder 
magazines,  etc.,  are  regulated  ;  this  alone  is  really  practicable, 
education  must  do  the  rest ;  prohibition  only  leads  to  other  im- 
moralities. 

No.  8.  I  find  that  during  the  winter  months,  when  I  am  occu- 
pied in  office  work,  a  moderate  use  of  stimulants  is  pleasant,  and 
I  fancy  useful  in  promoting  digestion.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
in  the  field  (and  I  have  spent  an  unusually  large  part  of  my 
life  in  hard  camp  life,  mountain  climbing,  etc.,  often  involving 
great  physical  hardship)  I  need  no  stimulants,  and  I  believe, 
from  comparing  my  own  experience  with  that  of  others  engaged 
in  similar  life  at  the  time,  I  am  stronger  and  better  without  the 
stimulant.  I  have  proved  by  actual  experience  that  in  a  long 
exposure  without  food,  and  other  hardships,  one  occasionally 
goes  through  in  western  exploration,  that  I. could  endure  more 
in  the  long  run  than  men  who  had  spent  their  entire  lives  in 
that  kind  of  work,  but  who  thought  stimulants  necessary,  and 
used  them  freely.  I  believe  if  man  could  live  a  perfect  sim- 
ple country  life  he  would  be  better  without  any  stimulant  of 
any  kind  ;  but  that  city  life  and  the  nerve  strain  that  accompa- 
nies it  is  better  endured  with  the  help  of  a  moderate  use  of 
stimulant ;  but  I  also  believe  that  such  stimulation  exhausts 
the  vital  force  so  much  the  quicker.  The  quantitj'  that  can  be 
taken  without  harm  varies  with  individual  temperament. 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  AND   BRAIN  WORKERS.  331 

No.  9.  Never  drink  water  other  than  the  so-called  mineral 
or  soda  waters.  Always  feel  better  for  some  stimulant.  Never 
took  much  alcoholic  stimulant  till  I  was  thirty  years  of  age,  and 
never  drank  to  excess.  Feel  better  in  health  for  moderate  use 
of  alcohol,  and  think  it  aids  digestion  when  taken  at  meal- 
time. 

No.  10.  I  would  not  be  willing  to  have  the  habit  of  drinking 
any  spirituous  liquor,  even  at  my  dinner  table,  so  as  to  feel  the 
want  of  it.  But  I  agree  with  Matthew  Arnold,  that,  inasmuch 
as  a  glass  or  two  of  wine  at  table  is  agreeable  to  me,  prompts 
cheerfulness,  and  adds  a  little  to  the  enjoyment  of  life,  I  find 
no  harm  in  it.  Occasionally,  perhaps  once  in  a  month  or  two, 
when  not  likely  to  go  at  once  to  sleep  from  having  something 
on  my  mind,  I  take  half  a  small  wineglass  of  whiskey  in  twice 
as  much  water,  with  a  biscuit,  just  before  going  to  bed.  This 
I  find  almost  invariably  gives  me  a  good  night's  rest.  But  I 
am  not  sure  that  I  feel  quite  as  well. 

No.  11.  I  never  drink  before  dinner,  and  I  dine  at  seven.  I 
think  drinking  at  lunch,  or  at  any  time  before  dinner,  is  injuri- 
ous to  most  men.  If  I  am  going  to  work  on  my  books  in  the 
evening,  a  glass  of  sherry  is  quite  enough.  Drinking  spirits 
and  water,  after  an  evening  spent  in  study,  induces  me  to  sleep, 
and  my  sleep  is,  and  has  always  been,  good.  I  think  rye  whiskey 
agrees  perhaps  better  with  me  than  any  other  spirit.  Beer  does 
not  seem  to  agree  with  me  in  winter. 

No.  12.  Before  the  age  of  forty-one  I  spent  some  years  in 
explorations  and  surveys  in  the  western  United  States,  and  had 
charge  of  men  and  assistants.  The  men  of  most  endurance 
were  either  total  abstainers  or  not  habitual  users  of  either  fer- 
mented or  distilled  liquors  ;  and  now  twenty -five  (to  thirty-four) 
years  after,  all  the  known  survivors  are  those  who  were  then 
either  total  abstainers  or  only  occasional  users. 

No.  13.  I  shoidd  have  had  no  scruple  against  using  wine,  etc., 
had  I  believed  it  useful  to  me,  though  much  opposed  to  its  com- 
mon use  as  a  beverage  ;  and  finding  no  need  for  it,  I  have 
abstained  for  the  public  good.  My  observation  of  effect  of 
drinking  goes  decidedly  against  its  daily  social  use.  As  a  college 
officer  I  learned  to  dread  its  injurious  effects  on  students.  It 
invariably  hurt  those  who  drank  habitually. 

No.  14.    My  personal  experience  and  observation  have  taught 


332  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

me  that  the  consumjJtion  of  a  moderate  quantity  of  wine,  whis- 
key, or  beer  is  not  conducive  to  the  maintenance  of  health  in 
any  class  of  men.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  the  amount  of 
these  which  may  be  taken  daily  without  risk.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  see  a  robust  man  show  the  effect  of  an  ordinary  glass  of 
whiskey,  while  I  know  a  gentleman  not  robust,  who  weighs  but 
124  pounds,  who  can  comfortably  dispose  of  a  bottle  of  it.  In 
this  city  (Washington)  I  feci  the  effect  of  a  half  an  ounce  of 
whiskey.  In  Boston,  I  can  take  two  ounces  without  feeling  it. 
So  I  can  at  sea.  In  Washington,  a  bottle  of  Bass's  ale  I  feel 
the  effect  of.  At  sea,  or  in  London,  I  can  take  four  with  com- 
fort.    Climate  and  occupation  are  undoubtedly  large  factors. 

No.  15.  All  heavy  drinkers  who  began  life  with  me  are  under 
the  sod.  Moderate,  but  constant,  drinkers  are  older,  in  effect, 
than  I  am  ;  they  are  suffering  with  some  ailment.  To  this  state- 
ment I  would  make  two  exceptions,  and  these  men  are  remark- 
able for  their  fine  constitutions  ;  I  look  at  them  daily  with  wonder 
because  they  drink  so  much. 

No.  16.  For  forty-five  years  it  has  been  my  work  to  control 
and  direct  men,  often  by  hundreds,  sometimes  by  thousands. 
More  than  nine  tenths  of  all  the  difficulties  encountered  have 
arisen  from  the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks,  alike  in  civil  life  and 
in  army  life.  These  difficulties  began  in  managing  men  on  a 
farm  when  I  was  a  youth  and  still  continued  in  directing  scien- 
tific research. 

No.  17.  The  facts  regarding  excessive  drinking  are  plain  ;  it 
is  a  menace  to  health,  happiness,  character,  and  life  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  to  the  welfare  of  society.  Moderate  drinking  has, 
within  ray  experience,  led  to  excessive  drinking  in  so  many  cases 
that  I  regard  the  latter  a  natural  sequence,  and  those  cases  in 
which  the  habit  is  held  in  moderation  to  be  exceptional,  though 
not  rare.  In  such  cases,  the  force  of  example  in  generating 
impulses  that  are  not  restrained  seems  to  me  a  sufficient  reason 
for  the  abandonment  of  moderation  in  drinking  in  favor  of  total 
abstinence. 

No.  18.  Believe  that  whiskey,  wine,  and  beer  help  nobody 
when  good  water  is  to  be  had.  It  is  a  question  of  no  damage, 
or  how  much  damage  is  done.  I  have  observed  that  men  who 
bathe  much,  exercise  much,  and  perspire  much,  drink  heavily 
with  the  least  apparent  damage.     The  English  gentleman,  for 


ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS   AND  BRAIN  WORKERS.  333 

example,  is  oftentimes  the  picture  of  health  and  energy  even 
when  he  is  a  heavy  drinker.  The  American  habit  of  desultory 
drinking  is  harmful  in  high  degree.  The  English  habit  of 
drinking  in  routine  with  eating,  bathing,  and  exercise,  is  much 
less  harmful.  Men  of  sedentary  habits  should  not  drink  at  all. 
Believe  total  abstinence  impracticable  of  attainment,  but  repres- 
sive measures  under  the  law  advisable.  Respectable  classes 
should  be  taught  how  to  drink  reasonably. 

No.  19.  The  general  conclusion  drawn  from  observation  and 
experience  is  that  during  all  of  earlier  and  middle  life,  while  a 
man  is  in  the  full  vigor  of  health,  any  form  of  vinous  or  alco- 
holic stimulant  is  unnecessary,  and  hence  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  injurious,  except  during  periods  of  extraordinary  physi- 
cal and  mental  exertion  especially  accompanied  by  deprivation 
of  sleep.  In  such  cases,  sometimes  extending  as  many  as  from 
twenty -four  to  thirty-six  hours,  some  stimulants  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  terra  of  exertion  have  been  found  indispensable. 
Later  in  life  when  the  digestion  becomes  less  vigorous  and  the 
physical  strength  somewhat  impaired,  my  experience  leads  me 
to  believe  that  a  small  quantity  of  dry  wine  or  good  whiskey 
with  dinner  is  desii-able,  but  that  any  form  of  stimulant,  except 
in  case  of  great  fatigue  or  great  exhaustion,  is  decidedly  injuri- 
ous. Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  fact  in  my  own  experience 
is  that  almost  the  only  time  when  rheumatic  pains  are  wholly 
absent  is  when  the  blood  is  flowing  vigorously  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  reasonable  quantity  of  good  whiskey,  and  I  do  not 
discover  that  there  is  any  injurious  after  effect,  provided  the 
stimulant  is  taken  with  considerable  food,  or  following  it,  dur- 
ing the  process  of  digestion  and  not  upon  an  empty  stomach. 

No.  20.  I  believe  that  the  moderate  use  of  a  light  claret  has 
helped  me  to  avoid  difficulties  of  digestion  more  than  anything 
else  I  have  tried.  I  should  state  that  my  diet  has  always  been 
very  light  and  simple  by  preference  as  well  as  prudence.  I 
have  come  to  believe  that  the  universality  of  the  dyspeptic  and 
nervous  troubles,  so  characteristic  of  the  over-worked  profes- 
sional man  in  America,  is  very  largely  due  to  the  reluctance  to 
use  a  light  stimulant  in  later  life,  a  custom  which,  whatever  its 
moral  bearings,  is  universal  in  other  civilized  countries. 

No.  21.  Young  men  who  drink  are  in  danger  of  contracting 
habits  which  destroy  their  business,  social,  and  religious  useful- 


334  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

ness.  I  always  discriminate  against  a  regular  drinker  in  ex- 
tending credit ;  so  do  all  banks,  insurance  companies,  railroad 
companies,  and  corporations  generally.  The  consumption  of 
whiskey,  wine,  or  beer  is  not  necessary,  and  leads  to  crime.  In- 
troduce the  sale  of  liquor  where  it  is  not  sold,  and  you  will  at 
once  increase  crime.  Men  who  want  to  have  clear  heads,  pure 
hearts,  and  prosper  in  the  community  want  to  avoid  habitual 
drinking. 

No.  22.  No  argument  whatever  can  convince  me  that  liquor 
is  required  in  the  world,  and  to  wipe  it  out  entirely  would  do 
more  for  Christianity^  and  to  create  a  gigantic  real  estate  sale  of 
hospitals  and  prisons,  than  everything  else  combined. 

No.  23.  It  is  within  my  personal  experience  that  men  en- 
gaged in  clerical  work  give  the  best  satisfaction  who  do  not 
indulge  in  spirits  of  any  kind. 

No.  24.  After  a  life  of  extraordinary  vicissitudes  and  ex- 
tremes, physical  and  mental,  my  repeatedly  tested  conclusion  is 
this :  — 

Wine  and  distilled  spirits  may  be  taken  beneficially  in  limited 
quantities  and  for  a  limited  time,  viz.  :  after  extraordinary  ex- 
posure ;  after  extraordinary  fatigue ;  after  debilitating  illness  ; 
during  a  period  of  prostration  ;  but  the  use  must  not  be  suffi- 
cient to  disturb  or  excite  the  system  and  cannot  be  continued 
long  without  injurious  effects  and  a  dependence  of  the  system 
upon  the  stimulant.  And  I  deem  the  use  more  injurious  and 
dangerous  for  brain  workers  than  for  any  other  class  of  persons. 

But  there  has  come  within  my  observation  a  fact  which  is 
worth  more  for  the  Committee  of  Fifty  than  a  thousand  indi- 
vidual experiences  :  — 

During  the  war  I  was  a  prisoner  for  thirteen  months  in  Louisi- 
ana and  Texas.  Among  the  prisoners  were  many  men,  soldiers 
and  sailors,  but  chiefly  sailors  who  had  been  addicted  to  drink. 
For  four  or  five  months  the  conditions  of  life  were  fairly  sanitary. 
On  the  one  hand  the  prisoners  were  in  roomy,  well  ventilated 
barracks  ;  they  had  to  police  and  keep  clean  their  quarters  and 
grounds  under  their  own  officers,  acting  with  the  cooperation  of 
the  Confederate  authorities  ;  they  had  sufficient  food  and  suffi- 
cient means  for  cooking  it  properly ;  they  had  saved  their 
clothes  when  captured  ;  they  were  allowed  to  go  out  and  cut  their 
own  wood ;  they  were  marched  across  Texas  from  Hempstead  to 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  AND  BRAIN   WORKERS.  335 

Shreveport,  and  from  Shreveport  back  to  Tyler.  On  the  other 
hand  there  was  the  confinement  and  depression  of  imprisonment, 
the  lack  of  regular  work ;  a  climate  they  were  not  accustomed 
to,  and  some  malarial  influences.  Notwithstanding  the  latter 
conditions  these  men  improved  physically  and  mentally  in 
such  a  marked  degree  that  other  officers  agreed  with  me,  at 
the  time,  that  enforced  total  abstinence  was  the  very  best  con- 
dition that  could  be  imposed  upon  them. 

And  in  confirmation  of  the  above,  I  repeatedly  observed  that 
many  of  these  men,  after  they  had  returned  to  their  homes  with 
all  the  advantages  of  civilized  life,  had  run  down  and  did  not 
appear  either  physically  or  mentally  to  be  as  fair  specimens  of 
manhood  as  they  did  while  inmates  of  a  Confederate  prison 
camp. 

But  here  I  must  specially  guard  what  I  have  above  stated,  by 
saying  that  those  observations  must  be  confined  to  the  period 
of  four  or  five  months  of  fairly  sanitary  conditions.  I  do  not 
mean  to  say  that  the  filth  and  squalor  and  starvation  and  na- 
kedness and  wretchedness  which  attended  a  considerable  part 
of  their  captivity  showed  any  favorable  result  whatever. 

No.  25.  From  a  large  experience  with  drinking  men  in  a 
line  of  work  for  their  rescue,  covering  many  years,  I  find  that 
the  drink  habit  is  one  that  they  have  formed  not  through  pre- 
disposition, but  during  the  years  of  eighteen  to  twenty-four 
from  so-called  good-fellowship  and  treating  ;  then,  having  ac- 
quired a  habit,  and  their  system  craving  alcohol,  it  became  the 
old  story  of  an  uncontrollable  appetite.  This  applies  to  the 
millionaires,  and  the  sons  of  the  same  —  who  have  the  means  to 
gratify  their  wants,  and  do  so  till  their  systems  refuse,  when 
mania-a-potu  and  death  follows,  as  well  as  to  the  gutter-snipe 
who  burns  for  rum,  and  dies  the  death  of  a  neglected  drunkard. 
Rum  levels  them  both  and  affects  them  in  the  same  way  —  here 
and  hereafter.  The  curse  is  in  the  abuse,  but  the  man,  as  a 
rule  who  is  abusing  the  use  of  it,  does  not  consider  that  it  ap- 
plies to  himself,  but  to  the  other  fellow,  and  will  sympathize, 
and  sometimes  remonstrate  with  him  in  his  being  a  slave  to 
drink. 

No.  26.  I  do  not  believe  the  regular  consumption  of  whiskey, 
wine,  beer,  etc.,  is  conducive  to  health,  etc.,  but  I  am  satisfied 
it  is  always  attended  with  danger  arising  from  gradual  physical 
dependence  upon  stimulant. 


336  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

No.  27.  Believe  myself  benefited  of  late  years  by  tbe  occa- 
sional very  moderate  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants  taken  either 
with  dinner  or  before  retiring  when  physically  depressed.  On 
the  whole,  approve  of  total  abstinence  up  to  forty  or  forty-five 
years  of  age ;  after  that  believe  that  the  moderate  use  of  stimu- 
lants is  often  beneficial. 

No.  28.  During  the  war  I  was  captured  and  held  a  prisoner 
for  six  months  in  Libby,  Macon,  Charleston,  and  Columbia. 
Insufficient  and  improper  food  produced  a  serious  disarrange- 
ment of  the  digestion  and  left  me  with  a  tendency  to  a  catarrhal 
condition  of  the  stomach,  bowels,  and  bladder,  which  became 
chronic  later  through  overwork  and  nervous  strain,  which  have 
been  continuous  through  life,  resulting  in  occasional  break- 
downs and  long  absences  for  recovery.  Five  years  ago,  on  one 
of  these  occasions,  while  crossing  in  a  N.  G.  Lloyd  steamer,  I 
was  led  to  try  a  little  Mosel  wine.  It  comforted  my  stomach 
and  assisted  digestion  and  assimilation.  Its  continued  use  pro- 
duced such  marked  and  favorable  results  that  I  have  continued 
it  to  this  day,  and  am  absolutely  sure  that  to  it  is  due  a  com- 
plete recovery  of  my  digestion,  and  the  disappearance  of  ca- 
tarrh, except  from  grip  or  a  cold,  which  yields  as  in  other  cases. 
Used  only  unth  food  none  of  the  things  I  take  tend  in  the 
slightest  degree  to  create  an  appetite.  If  it  becomes  necessary 
to  go  without  anything,  I  do  not  miss  it  unless  I  go  so  long 
that  the  tendency  to  a  catarrh  begins  to  assert  itself ;  then  I 
have  the  beginnings  of  indigestion ;  but  there  is  not  the  slight- 
est cravings  for  a  stimulant. 

Few  men  endure  more  constant  strain  than  myself. 

Taken  merely  as  a  stimulant  and  on  an  empty  stomach  any 
form  of  alcohol  has  rather  a  narcotic,  not  a  stimulating  effect. 
It  does  not  assist  mental  action,  and  after  a  little,  perceptibly 
diminishes  it,  even  in  small  quantity. 

No.  29.  The  use  of  whiskey  in  moderation  has  not  seemed  to 
be  deleterious  ;  on  some  conditions  of  the  mental  and  physical 
system  it  has  been  a  decided  benefit. 

No.  30.  I  believe  that  we  should  encourage  light  native 
wines  or  beer  as  a  beverage  for  the  classes.  Should  be  glad 
to  see  American  wine  sold  as  cheaply  and  used  as  freely  as  in 
Continental  countries  and  all  heavy  liquors  banished  if  possi- 
ble.    Heavy  liquors   cannot  be  healthy  in  our   climate  as  a 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  AND   BRAIN   WORKERS.  337 

steady  drink.  Englishmen  and  Scotchmen  who  in  this  country 
keep  up  their  habits  of  drinking  brandy  as  freely  as  at  home 
generally  become  drunkards.  I  have  made  this  a  matter  of 
careful  observation  ;  I  lived  in  England  for  nine  years. 

No.  31.  My  own  observation,  both  in  Europe  and  Amei'iea, 
leads  me  to  the  conclusion  that  the  use  of  wine  in  moderate 
amount  at  table  is  entirely  harmless,  and  frequently  beneficial ; 
that  the  tippling  habit  at  the  saloon  or  bar  or  club  is  always 
dangerous,  and  frequently  destructive. 

No.  32.  My  opinion  is  that  the  habitual  or  even  occasional 
use  of  spirits  is  always  injurious.  That  the  very  moderate  use 
of  v.'ine  or  beer  may  not  be  injurious  if  kept  within  moderate 
limits,  but  is  always  attended  with  more  or  less  danger  of  lead- 
ing to  excess  ;  that  it  is  always  dangerous  for  a  woman  to  drink 
at  all :  that  it  is  dangerous  for  a  man  to  drink  until  his  habits 
and  character  are  fairly  formed  ;  that  it  is  dangerous  to  drink 
before  and  during  work ;  that  the  reformation  of  a  confirmed 
drunkard,  either  a  periodical  or  a  constant  drinker  to  excess,  is 
very  rare. 

No.  33.  Light  Moselle  or  Rhine  wine  at  meals.  Occasion- 
ally beer  during  the  day  when  in  Germany,  seldom  here.  Oc- 
casionally milk  punch  of  rum  ;  seldom  take  any  stimulant  pre- 
vious to  work.  Have  lived  as  above  nearly  all  my  life.  Do 
not  drink  whiskey,  and  take  brandy  only  as  medicine ;  believe 
in  moderate  stimulants  as  recuperator  after  work  ;  never  take 
them  before. 

No.  34.  My  personal  experience  is  that  a  moderate  use  of 
good  wine  or  spirits  is  conducive  to  health,  and  that  people 
who  cannot  be  moderate  ought  not  to  use  stimulants  at  all. 

No.  35.  I  doubt  whether  the  use  of  spirituous  or  vinous 
liquors  is  conducive  to  health,  and  equally  doubt  that  the  mod- 
erate use  of  either  is  harmful. 

No.  36.  I  think  a  man  after  fifty  years  can  use  a  little  liquor 
to  his  benefit  if  he  has  character  enough  not  to  abuse  the  use. 
I  believe  if  used  it  had  better  be  taken  with  the  regular  meals. 
As  to  the  daily  quantity,  that  would  vary  in  the  same  manner 
as  that  of  food.  Every  man  should  judge  for  himself.  My 
observation  is  never  begin  to  drink  too  early  in  life  and  become 
slaves  to  a  foolish  habit.  Young  men  do  not  need  liquor,  and 
our  social  functions  in  this  direction  are  bad. 


338  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

No.  37.  I  drink  as  a  matter  of  habit,  and  not  that  I  con- 
sider it  especially  healthful ;  neither  have  I  found  it  especially 
harmful.  From  personal  experience  I  would  not  advocate  par- 
taking of  any  alcoholic  drink.  As  a  dear  friend  of  mine,  a  Ger- 
man professor  of  medicine,  once  said  to  me  when  we  were  dis- 
cussing the  same  subject,  "  I  have  known  thousands  to  die  from 
the  effects  of  drink,  but  never  knew  one  to  die  from  the  want 
of  it." 

No.  38.  I  have  seen  or  experienced  no  ill  effects  from  a 
moderate  consumption  of  liquor,  but  believe  the  regular  use  in 
many  cases  to  be  injurious,  and  especially  in  stand-up  drinks. 
I  think  the  main  evil  comes  from  the  habit  of  treating,  and  in 
not  considering  it  proper  or  manly  to  accept  a  drink  without 
returning  it  as  soon  as  the  first  drink  has  been  finished. 

No.  39.  From  experience  I  find  that  a  small  quantity  of 
light  wine  with  one  meal  a  day  materially  increases  my  capa- 
city for  mental  work.  When  the  use  of  one  gill  of  claret 
daily  has  been  discontinued  for  a  week  or  so,  I  find  myself 
less  inclined  to  mental  work  and  apparently  suffer  greater 
physical  fatigue  in  accomplishing  such  work.  My  experiences 
under  other  conditions  are  set  forth  in  the  March,  1887,  "  Fo- 
rum," under  the  title  of  "  The  Use  of  Alcohol  in  High  Lati- 
tudes." Except  where  the  experiences  of  other  parties  are 
clearly  set  forth  in  said  article,  the  experience  and  observation 
are  my  own. 


EELATIONS  OF  DRINK  HABITS  TO  INSANITY. 

BT 

J.  S.  BILLINGS,  M.  D. 


RELATIONS  OF  DRINK  HABITS  TO  INSANITY. 


At  the  suggestion  of  the  Physiological  Sub-Committee  the 
American  Medico-Psychological  Association  undertook  to  obtain 
some  data  with  regard  to  the  relations  between  drink  habits  and 
insanity,  and  for  this  purpose  the  following  form  of  queries  was 
prepared  corresponding  to  that  used  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics 
of  Labor  of  Massachusetts,  in  its  twenty-sixth  annual  report, 
published  in  1896.  30,000  of  these  forms  were  sent  out  to  117 
state  hospitals  and  asylums  for  the  insane,  and  as  a  result  5145 
cases  were  reported,  being  the  current  admissions  at  a  certain 
number  of  these  hospitals  for  one  year.  An  effort  was  also 
made  to  secure  data  from  some  of  the  large  general  hospitals 
with  reference  to  the  drinking  habits  of  the  patients  as  admitted, 
but  it  did  not  meet  with  much  success. 

A  report  has  been  received  from  Bellevue  Hospital  of  New 
York  city,  furnished  by  the  courtesy  of  Dr.  W.  Gilman  Thomp- 
son, giving  the  record  of  506  cases  in  the  wards  of  Dr.  Thomp- 
son's service,  and  giving  the  drink  habits  of  each  case,  and  also 
a  note  on  550  cases  from  the  Presbyterian  Hospital. 

The  data  obtained  for  the  insane  have  been  compiled  into 
tables,  which  are  herewith  presented.  From  these  tables  it 
appears  that  of  the  5145  insane  persons,  2008  or  39.08  per 
cent,  were  total  abstainers.  In  the  Massachusetts  statistics  for 
1886  persons,  36.87  per  cent,  were  reported  as  total  abstainers, 
while  of  the  patients  at  Bellevue  only  14  per  cent,  were  reported 
as  total  abstainers,  and  at  the  Presbyterian  25.28  per  cent. 

Of  the  excessive  drinkers  among  the  insane  there  were  12.22 
per  cent.,  the  Massachusetts  statistics  giving  16.94  per  cent., 
Bellevue  Hospital  21.54,  and  the  Presbyterian  14.90  per  cent. 

Of  those  cases  reported  from  insane  hospitals  the  insanity 
was  considered  to  be  due  to  the  influence  of  liquor  in  1289 
cases,  or  24.08  per  cent.  The  corresponding  figure  in  the 
Massachusetts  statistics  is  20.86  per  cent. 


342 


THE  LIQUOR  PKOBLEM'. 
COMMITTEE  OF  FIFTY. 


RELATIONS  OF  LIQUOR  PROBLEM  TO  INSANITY. 


1.    (Name  of  lustitutioD  filling  this  Schedule.) 


(Average  insane  population.) 


2    (Date  of  Admission.) 

1R<) 

3    (City.) 

4    (State.) 

6    (Chiistian  Name.) 

6    (Surname.) 

7    (Sex.) 

M               F 

8    (Age.) 

9    (Occupation.) 

Place  of 

BiETH  or 

10    (Patient.) 

11    (Father.) 

12    (Mother.) 

13    (Citizen  or  Alien.> 
CB                  N 

A 

14    (Language  Spoken.) 
E       and 

15    Do  you  regard  the  patient's  Insanity  as  due  to  the  i 
of  Intoxicating  Liquors  ? 


16    Do  you  believe  that  the  Intemperate  Habits  of  one  or  both 
parents  led  to  the  Insanity  of  the  person  considered  ? 


17    Do  you  believe  that  the  Intemperate  Habits  of  the  Grand- 
parents of  the  person  considered  led  to  his  (or  her)  Insanity  7 


IS    Do  you  believe  that  the  Intemperate  Habits  of  Others  (not 
parents  or  grandparents)  led  to  the  Insanity  of  the  person  con- 


LIQUOR  HABITS. 

KIND  OF  LIQUOR. 

19 

Person. 

20 

Father. 

21 

Mother. 

22 

Person. 

23 

Father. 

24 

Mother. 

ED 
SD 
HD 
PD 
OD 

ED 
8  D 
HD 
P  D 
OD 

B  D 
8  D 
H  D 
P  D 
0  D 

W 
L  B 
M  L 
D  L 

W 
L  B 
M  L 
D  L 

W 
L  B 
M  L 
D  L 

T  A 

T  A 

T  A 

N.  B.    Draw  a  line  across  the  letters  designating  the  answers  not  applicable  to  the  case. 

The  letters  C  B,  N,  and  A,  under  inquiry  13,  denote  respectively  "  Citizen  Bom,"  "  Natural- 
ized,"  "  Alien."  Letters  under  inquiries  15-18  Y,  N,  and  N  A  stand  for  "Yes,"  "No,"  "Not 
Ascertained  ;  "  E  D,  S  D,  H  D,  P  D,  O  D,  T  A,  under  19-21,  for  "Excessive  Drinker,"  "Social 
Drinker,"  "Habitual  Drinker,"  "  Periodic  Drinker,"  "  Occasional  Drinker,"  "  Total  Abstainer ;  " 
those  under  22-24  denote  "Wine,"  "Lager  Beer,"  "Malt  Liquors"  (other  than  lager  beer), 
"  Distilled  Liquors." 


RELATIONS  OF  DRINK  HABITS  TO  INSANITY.        343 

Upon  these  and  other  figures  presented  in  these  tables  It  may 
be  noted  that  the  difficulty  in  measuring  the  influence  of  the 
use  of  liquor  on  poverty  and  crime  by  means  of  statistics 
pointed  out  by  Prof.  Farnam  in  his  paper  on  "  Some  Economic 
Aspects  of  the  Liquor  Problem,"  in  the  "  Atlantic  Monthly," 
May,  1899,  exists  also  in  the  statistical  study  of  the  influence 
of  liquor  upon  disease,  physical  or  mental.  As  a  rule  the  use 
of  liquor,  when  it  is  a  cause,  is  merely  one  of  a  number  of  co- 
operating cases,  while,  not  infrequently,  it  is  a  result  rather 
than  a  cause  of  the  disease. 

The  data  obtained  by  the  American  Medico-Psychological 
Association  as  to  causes  of  insanity  due  to  liquor,  are  largely 
based  on  the  individual  opinion  of  the  observers,  and  these 
opinions  are  given  without  the  data  upon  which  such  opinions 
were  based.  We  do  not  know  what  symptoms  were  observed 
or  record  of  history  obtained,  which  led  a  physician  to  conclude 
that  the  insanity  was  due  to  the  use  of  liquor,  or  otherwise,  but 
comparison  with  the  Massachusetts  statistics  gives  percentages 
so  nearly  the  same  that  it  indicates,  upon  the  whole,  that  the 
opinions  of  the  physicians  in  the  two  entirely  distinct  groups 
were  based  upon  the  consideration  of  the  same  sort  of  circum- 
stances. 

The  information  furnished  at  the  time  when  an  insane  person 
is  admitted  to  a  hospital,  with  regard  to  the  cause  of  disease, 
is  apt  to  be  unreliable.  Those  habits  of  the  patient  which  have 
been  the  most  unusual,  attract  the  most  attention,  and  are  given 
the  greatest  weight,  and  in  the  case  of  persons  whose  use  of 
alcoholic  drinks  has  been  to  excess,  such  use  will  be  ascribed  as 
the  cause,  although  there  may  be  a  number  of  other  causes,  both 
inherited  and  acquired.  In  those  cases  reported  as  periodical 
drinkers,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  drink  habits  were 
causative  so  much  as  they  were  symptomatic.  It  is  evident 
from  the  study  of  the  tables  that,  as  a  rule,  periodical  drinking 
has  not  been  considered  as  a  symptom  of  disease  of  the  nervous 
system,  though  it  is  well  known  to  be  such  in  many  cases. 

The  large  number  of  excessive  drinkers  among  the  Bellevue 
patients  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  proportion  of  hard  drink- 
ers in  persons  admitted  to  this  hospital  is  comparatively  very 
high,  a  large  number  suffering  from  alcoholism  when  they  are 
admitted. 


341  THE   LQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Among  those  reported  from  the  insane  hospitals,  the  drink- 
ing habits  of  lOGO,  or  20.60  per  cent.,  could  not  be  ascertained  ; 
the  Massachusetts  statistics  giving  26.58  per  cent.,  Bellevue 
Hospital  statistics,  4.54  per  cent.,  and  the  Presbyterian  Hospital 
9.27  per  cent.  It  is  fair  to  assume  that  if  tlie  drink  habit  had 
been  sufficiently  marked  to  enter  as  a  causative  factor  this 
would  have  been  ascei'tained,  and  therefore  the  patients  may  be 
safely  included  in  the  class  of  moderate  drinkers  or  total  ab- 
stainers ;  at  all  events  they  can  be  excluded  from  the  hard  or 
excessive  di'inkers. 

We  have  no  data  with  regard  to  the  proportion  of  total 
abstainers  in  the  class  of  population  from  which  patients  in 
hospitals  for  the  insane  are  derived,  and  therefore  do  not  cer- 
tainly know  whether  the  proj:)ortion  of  total  abstainers  is  greater 
or  less  than  among  the  normal,  but  the  proportion  given  by 
these  figures,  39.02  per  cent.,  would  seem  to  be  at  least  as  high 
as,  if  not  higher  than,  the  proportion  among  average  adults.  In 
the  data  for  persons  in  professional  and  business  life  collected 
by  the  Committee  only  18.07  per  cent,  were  found  to  be  total 
abstainers. 

It  is  certainly  improbable  that  nearly  one  quarter  of  the 
cases  of  insanity  in  this  country  are  due  to  the  use  of  alcoholic 
drinks,  as  might  be  inferred  from  these  figures,  and  while  in  a 
given  case  of  an  excessive  drinker  who  becomes  insane,  the  con- 
nection between  cause  and  effect  may  be  plausibly  made  out,  it 
is  necessary  to  take  into  careful  consideration  other  inherited 
or  acquired  abnormities  or  weaknesses  of  the  nervous  system. 
In  any  case  where  there  is  a  tendency  to  psychic  or  nervous  in- 
stability and  abnormal  action,  either  inherited  or  acquired,  the 
excessive  use  of  alcohol  may  act  as  the  exciting  cause,  like  a 
torch  to  inflammable  material,  but  the  same  result  may  be  pro- 
duced with  any  excess  creating  a  strain  on  the  nervous  system, 
and  the  alcohol  would  produce  no  effect  upon  a  nervous  system 
in  normally  good  condition. 

Inherited  tendency  to  insanity,  due  to  the  use  of  liquor  by 
parents,  is  reported  in  122  cases.  In  26  of  these  cases  the 
fatlier  alone  was  intemperate,  and  the  mother  alone  in  six  cases  ; 
while  six  cases  were  ascribed  to  the  intemperance  of  the  grand- 
parents. 

It  would  require  something  more  than  the  usual  amount  of 


RELATIONS   OF   DRINK   HABITS  TO  INSANITY.        345 

attention  given  to  the  antecedent  history  of  patients  admitted 
to  insane  hospitals  to  determine  the  sources  of  inherited  intem- 
perance, even  if  the  antecedents  give  a  plain  history  of  intem- 
perate life.  These  statistics  must  be  received  with  caution  as 
showing  possibilities  rather  than  as  definite  evidence.  To  prove 
that  the  insanity  of  one  generation  is  due  to  alcoholic  excess  of 
a  previous  generation,  and  is  not  merely  a  coincidence,  requires 
that  other  causes  of  degeneration  shall  be  carefully  studied,  and 
duly  allowed  for. 

28J^It.  or  55.27  per  cent,  of  those  reported  from  insane 
hosj)itals  were  citizens  born,  the  Massachusetts  statistics  giv- 
i?ig  54:58  jjer  cent,  of  citizens  born. 

Of  those  whose  insanity  was  considered  to  be  due  to  the  use 
of  liquor,  44.26  per  cent,  were  citizens  born ;  in  males  alone 
this  percentage  was  59.10,  in  females  41.74. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  preliminary  study  may  be  supple- 
mented later  by  an  exhaustive  study  of  selected  or  representa- 
tive cases,  seeking  not  alone  the  relations  of  the  drink  habit 
and  insanity,  but  concomitant  causes,  as  well  as  the  relation  of 
insanity  to  the  drink  habit  conversely.  Thus,  in  periodical 
drinkers,  it  should  be  ascertained  how  far  the  outbreak  is  a 
manifestation  of  a  disordered  brain.  Frequently,  it  is  doubtless 
rather  an  effect  than  a  cause.  The  clinical  study  of  alcohol 
habitues,  and  their  mental  degradation,  must  be  accompanied 
by  pathological  investigation  before  the  real  truth  can  be 
ascertained. 

Table  I. 

Table  showing  5144  cases  of  insanity,  the  number  of  each  in  certain  groups 
of  ages,  with  distinction  of  sex  and  of  causation. 

Insanity  due  to  Liquor. 

Under  Not 

20     20-30   30-40   40-50   50-60    60-70  70-80  80  "scer.    Total. 

M    .  .      5      123        247        207         111          45  10      1     19        768 

F  ...      -        14          35          20          21          10  3      -      -        103 


Total. 

6 

137 

282    227    132    55 
Insanity  not  due  to  Liquor. 

13 

1 

19 

871 

M  .  . 

108 

483 

547    337    233    164 

104 

35 

37 

2048 

F.  .  . 

74 

320 

360   277    215    142 

88 

25 

15 

1516 

Total.  182   803    907    614    448    306    192  60  52   3564 


346  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

Insanity  due  to  habits  of  Parents. 

M    .  .      6        26          10            9            4            1  1      _      _  57 

F  ...       5        23          20            9            2            3  1-2  65 

Total.      11        49          30          18            6            4  2-2  122 

Insanity  due  to  habits  of  Grandparents. 

M..-1           1            1           -           -  ___  3 

F...-         -           2           -           -           -  -__  3 

TotaL       -1            3            1            -            -  ___6 

Insanity  due  to  habits  of  Others. 

M..--            1            2            -            -  -__  3 

F...-          1            8            2            4            4  -_-  19 

Total.       -1            9            4            4            4  ---22 
Insanity  cause  not  ascertained. 

M    .  .     11         76        101          70          34          26  15      8     14  365 

F  ...      5        48          49          45          20          19  7      3      8  204 

Total.      16      124         150        115          64          45  22     11     22  559 

Grand  total.  6144 

Tot.  M  130      709        907        626        382        236  130    44    70  3234 

"   F    84      406        474        353        262        178  99    28    26  1910 


Grand  total.  5144 


Table  II. 


Table  showing  871  cases  of  insanity  due  to  liquor  used  by  patients,  with 
distinction  of  sex  and  nationality. 

DL  W  W  W  W  W  W  LB  LB  LB  LB  ML  Ml  W 

LB  ML  DL  LB  LB    ML  DL  ML     DL  LB 

ML  DL  DL        ML 

DL 

Citizen  born,  M.      116     14    13      1      5      2      8     12      7    71     45      2    21    117      1      -    19    454 

"  "F.  427----1241--17--6      43 

Total  ...    120  16  20   1   5   2   8  13   9  75  46   2  21  134   -   -  24  497 

Iriah  ...M.       M12-----2    20      714      13      1-5    110 
F.  446-----1351112      1-442 

Total    ...  58      58-----323    12      25      25      2-9    152 

German  ..M.       18      12--2-4-61-2      11--148 
i<  F.         -------2-----       ----2 

Total     ...  18      12--2-6-61-2      11--150 

25311---117515     1B--368 


2      -      1      -      1      - 


Scotland,  S 
Canada,    ) 

Total    ...  273211--128516     17--4     78 


RELATIONS  OF  DRINK   HABITS  TO   INSANITY.        347 

AU  other    |M.       22      21-2-12-99--24--173 
countries,   tF.  __-___-____2-        1-1-        4 

Tottd    ...  2221-2-12-992-25-11      77 

Nationality    IM.      6------1-2---        4--2      15 

unknown,      )F.      -------------        ---2        2 

Total    ....       6------1-2---       4--4      17 

Grand  total  ....    871 

Table  III. 

Table  showing  871  cases  of  insanity  due  to  liquor  habits  of  patients,  with 
distinction  of  sex  and  nationality. 
Male.  ED  SD  HD  PD  OD         NA        TA        00      Total. 

Citizen  born  .     .     62        21  114        33        16        8        -        -        454 

Irish      ....     67           1  33           3           3         3         -         -         110 

German           ..35           1  9           2           1---           48 

Eng.,  Scot.,  Can.     39          3  21          2          3        _        _        _          68 

All  others  ...     46          3  15          4          2        3        -        -          73 

Natl'y  unknown       61  1313--15 

Total  male     .    255        30        193        47        26      17        -        -        768 

Female. 

Citizen  born   .     .     17           2  11           5           3         5         -         -  43 

Irish      ....22          4  7          4          14--  42 

German      ...1           -  -           -           1---  2 

Eng.    Scot.,  Can.       4-  31-2--10 

All  others  ...2           -  1           -           ____  4. 

Natl'y  unknown        --  ___2--  2 

Total  female  .46  6  22        10  6      13        -        -        103 

Grand  total     .  301         36        215        57        32      30        -        -        871 

Table  IV. 

Table  showing  871  cases  of  insanity  due  to  liquor  habits  of  patients,  with 

distinction  of  sex  and  nationality. 


Citizen 

Scotch, 

All  other 

Natl'y 

Male. 

bom. 

Irish. 

Oerman. 

Canadian. 

countries. 

unknown. 

Total. 

Age  under  20 

years 

2 

- 

1 

1 

1 

- 

5 

"    20  to  30 

" 

82 

17 

6 

7 

11 

- 

123 

"    30  to  40 

" 

163 

23 

7 

25 

26 

3 

247 

"    40  to  50 

" 

118 

28 

19 

20 

21 

1 

207 

«    50  to  60 

" 

CO 

26 

10 

6 

8 

1 

111 

"    60  to  70 

" 

17 

10 

5 

8 

5 

- 

45 

"     70  to  80 

« 

5 

3 

- 

_ 

1 

1 

10 

"    80to    - 

" 

- 

1 

- 

_ 

- 

- 

1 

Age  not  ascertained 

7 

2 

- 

1 

- 

9 

19 

Total  male  .     .     454     110 


68 


73 


15 


768 


348 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Female. 

Age  under  20  years 
"  20  to  30  " 
«  30  to  40  " 
"  40  to  50  " 
«  50  to  60  " 
"  60  to  70  " 
«  70  to  80  " 
«    80  to    -     " 

Age  not  ascertained 

Total  female 
Grand  total  .     . 


Irish.      German. 


6 
12 
10 

2 


Eng.,  Scot. 
Canadian. 

All  other 
couutriea. 

Natl'y 
unknown. 

Total. 

3 

_ 

_ 

14 

3 

2 

- 

35 

4 

1 

1 

20 

- 

1 

1 

21 

- 

- 

- 

10 

- 

- 

- 

3 

103 


497     152 


60 


78 


77 


17 


871 


Table  V. 

Table  showing  150  cases  of  insanity  due  to  habits  of  parents  and  others 

Liquor  habits  of  patients,  with  distinction  of  sex  and  nationality 

Male. 

Citizen  born 
Irish  .     .     . 


HD 


German  ... 
Eng.,   Scot.,  Can 
All  others    . 
Natl'y  unknown  *. 

Total  male  . 

Female. 
Citizen  born  . 
Irish  .... 
German  .  .  . 
Eng.,  Scot.,  Can. 
All  others  .  . 
Natl'y  unknown 

Total  female 

Grand  total  . 


18 


Total. 

43 
1 
4 
2 

13 

B 


63 

63 
3 
7 
6 
2 


28 


12 


38        38 


64 


150 


Table  VI. 

Table  showing  63  cases  of  (male)  insanity  due  to  drinking  habits  of  parents, 

with  distinction  of  nationality. 

5D  SD  HD  PD  ( 

19  2  6  2 


Male. 
Citizen  born      .     . 

Irish 

German  .  .  .  . 
Eng.,  Scot.,  Can.  . 
All  other  countries 
Natl'y  unknown     . 

Total    .     .     .     . 


NA 

TA 

Total. 

5 

- 

37 

- 

- 

1 

- 

- 

4 

_ 

- 

2 

1 

_ 

13 

57 


RELATIONS  OF  DRINK  HABITS  TO   INSANITY.        349 

!D  8D  HD  PD  OD  NA  TA       Total. 

-  -  -  1  -  2  3 


Male. 
Insanity  due  to  > 
grandparents     J 
Insanity  due  to 
other  persons 

Grand  total 


}■ 


Table  VII. 


Table  showing  87  cases  of  female  insanity  due  to  drinking  habits  of  parents, 
with  distinction  of  nationality. 


Female. 

ED            SD 

HD 

PD 

OD          NA 

TA 

Total. 

Citizen  born      .     .     . 

13          4 

23 

2 

2             6 

_ 

50 

Irish 

- 

_ 

1 

1 

_ 

2 

German 

2 

1 

_ 

1 

_ 

4 

Eng.,  Scot.,  Can.  . 

- 

2 

1 

1 

_ 

4 

All  other  countries    . 

- 

1 

_ 

1 

_ 

2 

Natl'y  unknown     .     . 

- 

- 

- 

3 

- 

3 

Total 

15          4 

27 

4 

3        12 

- 

65 

Female. 

Insanity  due  to  l 
grandparents      J 
Ius.anity  due  to  ) 
other  persons     ) 

- 

- 

- 

1 

2        10 

2 

7 

3 

19 

Grand  total  .     .     . 

15          4 

27 

4 

5        23 

9 

87 

Table  VIII 

Table  showing  63  cases  of  insanity 
of  sex,  age 

due  to  habits  of 
and  nationality 

parents,  with  distinction 

Male. 

Citizen  born.     Irish. 

German 

English, 
Scotch, 
Canadian. 

All  other 
countries. 

Total. 

Af 

re  under  20  years 
'     20  to  30      " 

.      5 
.     21 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

6 
26 

'     30  to  40      " 

.      3 

- 

1 

1 

5 

10 

'    40  to  50      « 

7 

- 

- 

- 

2 

9 

'     50  to  60      " 

1 

- 

1 

- 

2 

4 

'    60  to  70      " 

. 

- 

- 

- 

1 

1 

'     70  to  80      " 

. 

- 

1 

- 

- 

1 

'     80  to    -      " 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

Not  ascertained 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

Total     .... 

.    .    37 

1 

4 

2 

13 

67 

350 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Male. 
Insanity  due  to  grandparents. 
Age  20  to  30  years  . 

"    30  to  40     "     . 

"    40  to  50     "     . 


Citizen  bom.    Irish. 
.      .      1 
.      .      1 
.      .      1 


English, 

Scotcli,     All  other 
German.   Canadian,  countries. 


Total 


3 


Male. 
Insanity  due  to  other  persona. 

Age  30  to  40  years  ....     1  -  -  -  - 

"   40  to  50     "       ....    2 

Total 3  -  -  -  -  3 

Graad  total 63 


Table  IX. 

Table  showing  87  cases  of  insanity  due  to  habits  of  parents,  with  distinction 
of  sex,  age,  and  nationality. 


Female.                 C 

tizen  born. 

Age  under  20  years 

5 

"     20  to  30     " 

17 

"    30  to  40     « 

17 

"    40  to  50    " 

6 

"    50  to  60     " 

2 

"    60  to  70     " 

2 

"     70  to  80    « 

- 

"    80  to    -     " 

- 

Not  ascertained 

1 

Total  .... 

50 

Irish.    German. 

1  1 

1 

1  1 


English, 

Scotch, 

Canadian. 


All  other 
countries. 

Natl'y 
unknown. 

Total. 
5 

-• 

2 

23 

2 

20 

- 

- 

9 

_ 

_ 

2 

- 

- 

3 

_ 

- 

1 

65 


Female. 
Insanity  due  to  habits  of  grandparents. 

Age  30  to  40  years  .       1 
Not  ascertained 


Total  , 


Female. 
Insanity  due  to  habits  of  others. 

Age  20  to  30  years 
"    30  to  40     « 
"    40  to  50     " 
"    50  to  60     " 
"    60  to  70     " 


Total  , 


12 


1 

2 
1         3 


1 

8 
2 
4 
4 

19 


RELATIONS  OF  DRINK  HABITS  TO  INSANITY       351 


Table  X. 

Table  showing  insanity  due  to  the  drinking  habits  of  each  parent. 

Male. 

Female. 

Father.               Mother. 

Total. 

Father. 

Mother. 

Total. 

ED                 TA 

26 

ED 

TA 

8 

SD                 TA 

2 

SD 

TA 

2 

HD                 TA 

4 

HD 

TA 

15 

OD                 TA 

2 

PD 

TA 

2 

SD                 NA 

1 

OD 

TA 

3 

HD                 NA 

5 

NA 

TA 

1 

PD                 NA 

1 

ED 

NA 

7 

NA                 NA 

5 

SD 

NA 

1 

TA                 ED 

1 

HD 

NA 

6 

ED                 HD 

1 

NA 

NA 

10 

ED                 OD 

4 

NA 

HD 

1 

HD                 PD 

1 

ED 

HD 

1 

HD                 OD 

2 

SD 

OD 

1 

PD                 PE 

1 

HD 

ED 

2 

OD                 ED 

1 

HD 

OD 

3 

PD 

HD 

1 

Total 

.    57 

Total  .     . 

.     65 

Due  to  grandparents     .     . 

.      3 

Due  to  grandparents   ... 

.      3 

"     "   other  persons     .     . 

3 

"     ' 

'   other 

persons    ... 

.     19 

Total 

.    63 

Total .     . 

.     87 

Gra>nd.  tota.1,  both  sexes  . 

150 

Table  XI. 

Table  showing  150  eases  of  insanity  due  to  drinking  habits  of  each  parent, 
with  distinction  of  sex. 


Father. 

Mother. 

Total. 

Father. 

Mother. 

Total. 

ED 

TA 

26 

ED 

TA 

8 

ED 

HD 

1 

ED 

NA 

7 

ED 

OD 

4 

ED 

HD 

1 

SD 

TA 

2 

SD 

TA 

2 

SD 

NA 

1 

SD 

NA 

1 

HD 

TA 

4 

SD 

OD 

1 

HD 

NA 

5 

HD 

TA 

15 

HD 

PD 

1 

HD 

NA 

6 

HD 

OD 

2 

HD 

ED 

2 

PD 

NA 

1 

HD 

OD 

3 

PD 

PD 

1 

PD 

TA 

2 

OD 

TA 

2 

PD 

NA 

1 

352 


THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


Father. 

Mother. 

OD 

ED 

TA 

ED 

NA 

NA 

Total 


Female. 

Total. 

Father.                  Mother. 

Total. 

1 

PD                  HD 

1 

1 

OD                  TA 

3 

5 

NA                 TA 

1 

NA                 NA 

10 

NA                 HD 

1 

67 

Tot 
Due 

i\ 

.     65 

3 

to  grandparents 

3 

3 

" 

"  other  persons 

.     19 

Due  to  grandparents   . 
"     "  other  persons  . 

Total,  male 63  Total,  female 87 

Grand  total,  hoth  sexes 150 

Table  XII. 

Table  showing  3564  cases  of  insanity  not  due  to  liquor  habit,  with  distinction 
of  sex,  age,  and  nationality. 

English, 

Scotch,      All  other        Natl'y 


Male. 

Citizen  born. 

Irish. 

German. 

Cauadia 

J.  countries. 

mknowD 

.  Total. 

Age  under  20  ye 

vrs  .       77 

2 

4 

3 

20 

2 

108 

"     20  to  30 

'     .     335 

16 

25 

19 

87 

1 

483 

"     30  to  40 

'     .     305 

27 

58 

44 

106 

7 

547 

"     40  to  50 

'     .     188 

23 

49 

29 

46 

2 

337 

"    50  to  60 

'     .     123 

30 

23 

26 

30 

1 

233 

"    60  to  70 

'     .      87 

24 

20 

20 

12 

1 

164 

"     70  to  80 

'     .      50 

20 

10 

7 

9 

2 

104 

"    80  to    - 

'     .      23 

6 

4 

1 

1 

- 

35 

Not  ascertained 

.     .       20 

2 

7 

- 

2 

6 

37 

Total     .     .     . 

.     1214 

150 

200 

149 

313 

22 

2048 

Female. 

Age  under  20  ye 

irs  .       51 

4 

2 

7 

9 

1 

74 

"     20  to  30 

'     .     214 

27 

20 

23 

32 

4 

320 

"     30  to  40 

"     .     238 

26 

16 

36 

41 

3 

360 

"     40  to  50 

"     .     106 

16 

31 

42 

21 

1 

277 

"    50  to  60 

"     .       25 

135 

15 

26 

13 

1 

215 

"     60  to  70 

"     .       77 

23 

18 

16 

7 

1 

142 

"     70  to  80 

"     .      51 

22 

7 

6 

2 

- 

88 

"     80  to    - 

"     .       18 

6 

- 

- 

- 

1 

25 

Not  ascertained 

.     .        4 

1 

2 

1 

6 

1 

15 

Total       .     . 

.     .     844 

260 

111 

157 

131 

13 

1516 

Grand  total 

.     .  2058 

410 

311 

306 

444 

35 

3564 

RELATIONS   OF   DRINK   HABITS   TO   INSANITY. 


353 


Table  XIII. 

Table  showing  3564  cases  of  insanity  nol  due  to  liquor  habit,  with  distinction 

of  sex  and  nationality. 


Male. 

ED 

SD 

HD 

PL) 

OD 

NA 

TA 

Total. 

Citizen  born     . 

21 

125 

20 

15 

2i«j 

123 

614 

1214 

Irish  .... 

4 

9 

3 

7 

57 

3 

67 

150 

German  .     .     . 

3 

26 

3 

2 

78 

10 

78 

200 

Eng.,  Scot.,  Can. 

3 

15 

- 

3 

39 

16 

73 

149 

All  others    .     . 

5 

43 

2 

2 

106 

11 

144 

313 

Natl'y  unknown 

- 

1 

- 

'■^ 

4 

4 

9 

22 

Total  male   . 

38 

219 

28 

31 

580 

107 

985 

2048 

Female. 

Citizen  born 

2 

24 

3 

3 

83 

219 

610 

944 

Irish  .... 

1 

5 

3 

1 

39 

55 

56 

160 

German  .      .     . 

- 

17 

2 

- 

24 

18 

50 

111 

Eng.,  Scot.,  Can. 

1 

5 

- 

- 

16 

do 

70 

157 

All  others   .      .     . 

- 

10 

- 

- 

13 

29 

79 

131 

Natl'y  unknown 

- 

1 

- 

- 

2 

8 

^ 

13 

Total  female 

4 

62 

8 

4 

177 

394 

867 

1516 

Grand  total  .     42       281 


561       1852      3564 


Table  XIV. 

Table  showing  559  cases,  cause  of  insanity  not  ascertained,  with  distinction 
of  sex  and  nationality. 


Hale. 

Citizen  born. 

Irish. 

German 

Eitf]^li.sh, 

Sooti'li, 

Canadian 

All  other 
countrie.s 

Natl'v 
inikno%Vn 

Total. 

Under  20  years   . 

6 

- 

1 

- 

3 

1 

11 

20  to  30      "      . 

53 

1 

1 

3 

10 

8 

76 

30  to  40      "      . 

61 

2 

11 

t'l 

17 

4 

101 

40  to  50      "      . 

35 

3 

6 

6 

14 

6 

70 

50  to  60      "      . 

22 

3 

4 

1 

2 

2 

34 

60  to  70      "      . 

11 

4 

6 

- 

3 

2 

26 

70  to  80      "      . 

3 

4 

4 

2 

1 

1 

15 

80  to    -      "      . 

2 

2 

1 

_ 

_ 

3 

8 

Not  ascertained  . 

3 

- 

1 

2 

'■i 

6 

14 

Total  male  .     . 

196 

19 

35 

20 

52 

33 

355 

Female. 

Under  20  years    . 

5 

- 

- 

- 

_ 

- 

5 

20  to  30      "      . 

21 

2 

10 

2 

10 

3 

48 

30  to  40      "      . 

21 

7 

3 

1 

13 

4 

49 

40  to  50      "      . 

17 

4 

9 

5 

6 

4 

45 

50  to  GO      "      . 

7 

5 

3 

1 

3 

1 

20 

60  to  70      "      . 

10 

1 

3 

1 

4 

- 

19 

THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 


Male. 
70  to  80  years   . 

Citizen  born. 

Irish. 

2 

Ge^an. 

Kii^'liish, 
Scoti-h, 
Cauadiati. 

All  other 
i-ouiitrieB. 

2 

Xatl'y 
uukuovvii 

Total. 

7 

80  to    -      "      . 

2 

1 

- 

_ 

- 

- 

3 

Not  ascertained  . 

1 

1 

- 

- 

1 

5 

8 

Total  female    . 

57 

23 

28 

10 

39 

17 

201 

Graiiil  total  . 

.     '283 

42 

03 

30 

91 

50 

559 

Table  XV. 

Table  sliowiiig  559  cases,  cause  of  insanity  not  ascertained,  with  cli.stinctioii 

of  sex,  age,  and  nationality. 


Male. 

ED 

SD 

HD 

PD 

OD 

NA 

TA 

Total. 

Citizen  born     . 

10 

45 

■.\ 

5 

30 

70 

33 

196 

Irish  .... 

- 

1 

1 

- 

7 

10 

_ 

19 

German  .     . 

1 

3 

1 

- 

5 

24 

1 

35 

Eng.,  Scot.,   Can 

2 

- 

3 

- 

1 

10 

4 

20 

All  otliers    .     . 

- 

1 

1 

- 

3 

43 

4 

52 

Natl'y  unknown 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

33 

- 

33 

Total  male  . 

13 

50 

9 

5 

46 

190 

42 

355 

Female. 

Citizen  born     . 

1 

1 

_ 

- 

1 

55 

29 

87 

Irish  .... 

1 

_ 

2 

1 

1 

13 

5 

23 

German  .     .     . 

- 

1 

1 

- 

1 

18 

7 

28 

Eng.,  Scot..  Can. 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

7 

3 

10 

All  others    . 

1 

- 

1 

- 

1 

33 

3 

39 

Nat'ly  unknown 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

14 

3 

17 

Total  male   . 

3 

2 

4 

1 

4 

140 

50 

204 

Grand  total 

IG 

52 

13 

6 

50 

330 

92 

559 

The  following  meniorandum  upon  the  drink  habits  of  patients 
at  Belle vue  Hospital.  Xew  York  city,  under  the  care  of  Dr.  W. 

Oilman  Thompson   for   one   year,  has  been   furnished  by  Dr. 
Thompson  :  — 

Total  number  treated  in  the  wards  of  Dr.  Tliompson's  ser- 
vice for  one  year 506 

Males 380 

Females 126 


Of  these  there  were  hard  drinkers,  males 
Females 


101 


Total 109 

Per  cent 21.54 


RELATIONS   OF   DRINK    HABITS   TO   INSANITY.        355 

Moderate  drinkers,  males 231 

Females     .................         72 

Total 303 

Per  cent 59.88 

Abstainers,  males 35 

Females 36 

Total 71 

Per  cent 14.03 

Not  ascertained,  males 13 

Females 10 

Total 23 

Per  cent 4.54 

Drinkers  of  spirits,  males 14 

Malt  liquors,  males 78 

Wines 5 

Spirits  and  malt  liquors  together 178 

Drinkers  of  spirits,  females 3 

Malt  liquors 34 

Wine 7 

Spirits  and  malt  li(]uors  together 27 

A  considerable  proportion  admitted  into  tliis  service  are  suffer- 
ins;'  from  alcoholism  when  admitted,  and  the  jiroportion  of  hard 
drinkers  is  very  high:  a  large  proportion  of  them  are  foreigners 
and  are  mainly  Irish  and  German. 


THE  INFLUENCE   OF   ALCOHOL   ON   GROWTH 
AND    DEVELOPMENT 


C.    F.    HODGE,  Ph.  D. 

PROFESSOR    OF   PHYSIOLOGY,    CLARK    UNIVERSITY 


THE   INFLUENCE   OF   ALCOHOL   ON   GROWTH 
AND    DEVELOPMENT 

The  following  experiments  were  undertaken  for  the  purpose 
of  studying  the  influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  more  general 
physiological  processes,  such  as  growth,  vigor,  and  resistance  to 
disease,  health,  activity  and  development  of  intelligence,  nor- 
mality and  viability  of  offspring.  In  all  four  series  of  investi- 
gations have  been  made  :  — 

1.  Upon  the  influence  of  minute  percentages  of  alcohol  on 
the  growth  of  yeast. 

2.  The  influence  of  moderate  doses  of  alcohol  upon  the 
growth  of  kittens. 

3.  The  influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  growth,  intelligence, 
activity,  and  offspring  of  dogs. 

4.  Influence  of  alcohol  on  the  daily  activity  of  rats. 

The  work  was  begim  in  the  fall  of  1895,  and  reports  of  these 
experiments  uj)  to  dates  of  publication  have  been  printed  in 
various  journals. ^  It  is  proposed  here  to  give  a  brief  summary 
of  these  publications  and  of  additional  results  up  to  the  present 
date. 

The  point  of  view  from  which  tlie  work  was  undertaken  was 
that  most  of  the  apparent  contradictions  in  the  results  of  at- 
tempts at  the  solution  of  the  alcohol  problem  are  due  to  the 
great  complexity  of  the  human  organism.  Of  all  animals  man 
is  the  most  adaptable  to  all  sorts  of  conditions  of  life.  Some 
men  fail  with  alcohol,  others  fail  as  completely  without  it,  and 

'  "  Experiments  on  the  Physiology  of  Alcohol  made  under  the  Auspices 
of  the  Committee  of  Fifty,"  Appleton's  Popular  Science  Monthly,  March 
and  April,  1897. 

"  Influence  of  Alcohol  on  the  Viability  of  Offspring  of  Dogs  and  on 
their  Susceptibility  and  Resistance  to  Distemper,"  Journal  of  the  Boston 
Sociel)/  of  Medical  Sciences,  December,  1897. 

"  Variations  in  Daily  Activity  produced  by  Alcohol,  and  by  Changes  in 
Barometric  Pressure  and  Diet,  with  Description  of  Recording  Methods," 
Colin  C.  Stewart,  American  Journal  of  Physiologij,  vol.  i.  1898. 


360  THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

the  same  is  true  of  success.  This  has  made  the  definite  inter- 
pretation of  the  human  experiment  impossible.  The  method  of 
physiological  science  is  to  reduce  the  problem  to  simplest  terms 
in  every  way  possible.  A  unicellular  organism  is  millions  of 
times  simpler  than  a  human  body ;  still  all  fundamental  func- 
tions and  processes,  such  as  nutrition,  growth,  reproduction, 
excretion,  appear  similar  in  both.  Hence  by  studying  tlie  influ- 
ence of  alcohol  upon  these  functions  in  simpler  organisms, 
evidence  may  be  gained  by  which  more  clearly  to  interpret  the 
human  experiment.  The  lower  animals,  complex  as  they  are,  are 
much  simpler  in  all  their  physiological  adaptations  than  man, 
and  yet  approach  him  more  closely  in  the  details  of  physiologi- 
cal processes,  and  thus  render  closer  comparison  jjossible.  Their 
conditions  of  life,  moreover,  may  be  made  more  nearly  compar- 
able than  it  would  ever  be  possible  to  find  or  procure  with  men. 
In  man,  even  after  death,  microscopical  investigation  of  the  tis- 
sues to  demonstrate  the  influence  of  alcohol  upon  them  is  so 
complicated  by  all  manner  of  disease  and  by  post-mortem 
changes  that  no  wholly  trustworthy  evidence  is  obtainable. 
Animals,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be  killed  in  known  conditions 
of  health,  and  their  tissues  may  be  immediately  prepared  for 
microscopical  examination.  In  this  way  important  results  have 
been  obtained  by  Berkley ,i  Dehio,^  Stewart,^  and  others,  that 
have  materially  aided  the  interpretation  of  findings  in  human 
tissues. 

Four  t5'pes  of  physiological  influence  that  alcohol  may  exert 
on  a  vital  function  are  represented  to  the  eye  in  the  left  hand 
diagram  of  Fig.  1.  It  may  have  no  effect,  as  represented  by 
the  line  mai-ked  "  normal."  It  may  stimulate  activity,  dotted 
line  Y,  or  it  may  depress,  or  decrease  activity,  dotted  line  X, 
or,  finally,  small  amounts  may  exert  a  proportionally  greater 
influence  than  larger  quantities,  heavy  line  N.  This  last  was 
found  to  be  the  influence  of  minute  percentages  of  alcohol  on 

1  Henry  J.  Berkley,  "  Studies  of  the  Lesions  produced  by  the  Action  of 
Certain  Poisons  on  the  Cortical  Nerve  Cell,"   Alcohnl,  Brain,  1895,  p.  473. 

-  Heinrich  Dehio,  "  Experimentelle  Untersnchungen  iiber  die  Veran- 
derungen  der  Ganglienzellen  bei  der  acuteu  Alkoholvergiftung,"  Centralbl. 
fur  Nervenheilkunde  und  Psychiatric,  1895,  p.  113. 

^  Colin  C.  Stewart,  "  Lifluence  of  Acute  Alcohol  Poisoning  on  Nerve 
Cells,"  Jourtial  of  Experimental  Medicine,  vol.  i.  No.  4,  1896. 


0%   NORMAL. 


/^OOO  f.       ALCOHOL. 

y 


Fig.  2.  —  G.  C,  curve  of  a  o-eometrical  progression  increasiii*;'  at  the  rate  of  yeast  growth 
iu  the  luirinal  cultures  for  the  first  twenty-four  liours.  The  numbers  at  the  right  indi- 
cate the  number  of  toruliz  found  in  a  cubic  millimetre  of  the  different  cultures. 


INFLUENCE  OF   ALCOHOL   ON   GROWTH.  361 

the  growth  of  yeast.  The  line  N  in  the  diagram  is,  in  fact, 
plotted  from  the  results  of  the  fifth  series  of  experiments.  The 
figures  from  which  the  curve  is  drawn  are  as  follows  :  — 

Growth  of  yeast,  .leries  5. 
Per  cent.  Count  V. 

of  alcohol.  48  hours. 

0.         (■/„ 1102 

0.001  '/„ 999 

0.01     1% 912 

0.1       % 602 

1-         "/c ^16 

The  diagram  at  the  right  in  the  figure  expresses  the  same 
result  as  a  race,  a  competitive  effort,  in  which  the  cultures 
containing  no  alcohol  are  seen  to  win,  the  others  falling  below 
proportionately  to  their  alcohol  content.  Fig.  2  is  a  similar 
expression  for  tlie  third  series  of  ex])eriments.  The  method  of 
uniformly  seeding  the  cultures  had  not  been  perfected  ;  still  the 
same  general  effect  is  apparent.  And  this  is  the  unquestionable 
result  in  all  the  experiments,  fifteen  in  number. 

The  form  of  the  curves  derived  from  all  these  experiments 
is  that  ordinarily  obtained  for  the  physiological  fatigue  of  a 
tissue,  muscle,  nerve,  or  gland.  This  is  what  we  should  expect, 
since  an  important  factor  in  causation  of  fatigue  is  accumulation 
of  waste  pi'oducts,  and  alcohol  is  a  waste  product  in  the  activity 
of  the  yeast  plant.  Alcohol  is  probably,  also,  a  partial  decom- 
position product  in  the  metabolism  of  a  number  of  animal  tis- 
sues, such  as  brain,  muscle,  and  liver,  but  with  some  or  all  of 
these  it  is  further  oxidized  to  carbon  dioxide  and  water.^  While 
of  considerable  physiological  interest,  the  fact  that  alcohol  in 
such  minute  traces  interferes  with  the  growth  processes  of  so 
simple  an  oi'ganism  as  yeast,  this  result  cannot  be  directly 
applied  to  organisms  capable  of  oxidizing  alcohol. 

Kittens,  as  comparable  as  it  was  possible  to  find  them,  were 
secured,  alcohol  was  given  to  one  pair,  keeping  a  number  of 
others  as  controls.  It  was  intended  to  breed  from  them,  if  pos- 
sible, and  follow  a  similar  line  of  experiments  as  those  to  be 
subsequently  described  for  the  dogs.  The  doses  of  chemically 
pure  alcohol,  diluted  vs^ith  water  to  twenty,  and  later  to  thirty 

'  Scliiifer,  Text-hnnk  of  Phf/siohr/i/,  vol.  i.  1-S82,  Edinburgh  and  London, 
1898.  Also  Hopiie-Syler,  Ilamlliuch  der  chemischen  Analyse,  Berlin,  189.3, 
p.  40. 


362  THE    LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

per  cent.,  began  with  1.3  grammes,  and  were  increased  to  3.6 
per  kilogramme  of  body  weight.  Since  kittens  refuse  to  drink 
milk  with  even  the  odor  of  alcohol  about  it,  the  doses  had  to 
be  given  with  a  stomach  pump,  and  the  same  amount  of  water 
was  given  the  normals.  Ten  days  of  this  regimen,  however,  was 
followed  by  so  com])lete  a  collapse  that  alcohol  was  discontin- 
ued, until  approximately  normal  health  should  be  restored. 
This  did  not  prove  possible,  the  male  lingering  along,  with  very 
little  gain  in  weight,  for  about  four  months,  and  the  female 
partially  recovered,  but  was  killed  by  a  dog.  The  disease  that 
developed,  first  in  the  alcoholic  kittens,  seemed  to  be  an  acute 
catarrh  of  respiratory  and  alimentary  systems  with  conjuncti- 
vitis. Some  weeks  later  all  the  normal  kittens  were  affected  in 
the  same  way,  and  either  died  or  were  killed  in  the  last  stages 
of  the  disease.  Practically  all  the  cats  in  the  neighborhood 
were  affected  in  the  same  way,  and  the  experiment  was  aban- 
doned. 

Fig.  3  gives  at  a  glance  the  relative  growth  of  the  kittens 
during  the  course  of  the  experiment.  It  will  be  noted  that 
those  having  been  given  the  alcohol  are  much  stunted  as  com- 
pared with  all  the  others,  but  whether  this  is  caused  by  the 
alcohol  or  the  disease  it  is  impossible  to  say. 

In  beginning  the  experiment,  it  was  remarkable  how  quickly 
and  completely  all  the  higher  psychic  characteristics  of  both  the 

kittens  dropped  out. 
Playfulness,  purring, 
cleanliness  and  care 
of  coat,  interest  in 
mice,  fear  of  dogs, 
while  normally  de- 
velo])ed  before  the 
experiment  began, 
all  disappeared  so 
suddenly  that  it  covdd 

Fio.  4.  Alcohol-diseaspd  kittens!  and  3.  June  4.  1  895:  hardly  be  explained 
characteristic  attitude.  When  the  pliotograph  was  taken,  otherwise  than  aS  a 
5  p.  M.,  all  the  normal  kittens  were  playing  actively. 

direct  influence  of  the 
alcohol  upon  the  higher  centres  of  the  brain.  Fig.  4  presents 
the  characteristic  appearance  of  the  alcoholic  kittens.  They 
simj)ly  ate  and   slept,  and  could  scarcely  have  been  less  active 


1  895 


2 
Ki 

MAY 
J3S 

JUNE 

JULY 

AUG. 

„4 

i<>^ 

rT^ 

'63X 

1 

4 

— ^^ 

S 

^^^v 

Fig.  .J.  —  Gkuwtu  ok  Kittens. 


■-',  4,  i;,  s.  II,  N.iR 
1,  3,  Alcoholic. 


Fig.  G.  —  Gkowth  of  the  Dogs. 


Tipsy.  Nig. 

Fig.  5.  —  November  27,  1895. 


TorsY. 


Tii-sv.  Nig. 

Fig.  12.  —  October,  1890. 


INFLUENCE   OF   ALCOHOL   ON   GROWTH.  363 

had  the  greater  part  of  their  cerebral  hemispheres  been  removed 
by  the  knife.  None  of  the  other  normal  kittens  showed  any- 
thing   like  so  sndden  and  comjjlete  a  collapse. 

In  a  series  of  experiments  upon  dogs  which,  it  was  intended, 
should  be  continued  during  the  length  of  their  n.itinal  lives, 
neither  jjaius  nor  expense  was  spared  to  obtain  animals  as  com- 
parable as  possible  and  of  good  stock.  The  four  cocker  span- 
iels presented  in  Fig.  5  were  finally  selected,  and  for  all  pur- 
poses of  the  experiment  they  have  been  in  breed  and  strain  all 
that  could  be  desired.  Although  belonging  to  two  not  closely 
related  kennels,  the  four  happened  to  have  been  born  on  the 
same  day,  February  22,  1895. 

April  29  they  weighed  as  follows  :  — 

Tipsy    .     .     .     2102  grammes.         Bum     .     .     .     2179  grammes. 
Topsy  .     .     .     2150  grammes.         Nig      .     .     .     1556  grammes. 

Topsy  and  Tipsy  are  sisters.  Nig  and  Bum,  brothers  from 
their  respective  litters.^ 

After  preliminary  study,  in  order  to  discover  minor  differ- 
ences in  disposition,  health,  or  character  of  the  dogs,  it  was 
decided  to  give  the  alcohol  to  the  more  vigorous  pair.  Tipsy  and 
Bum.  Accordingly  its  administration,  in  the  form  of  tested, 
chemically  pure  alcohol,  thoroughly  mixed  with  their  chief  meal, 
was  begun  on  May  24  following." 

The  dogs  were  weighed,  at  first  daily,  later  once  a  week,  and 
their  growth  may  be  read  from  Fig.  6,  together  with  that  of  a 
subsequent  group  to  be  described  later.  No  "stunting"  effect 
of  alcohol  as  administered  is  to  be  found  in  this  growth  chart. 
Probably  four  puppies  could  not  be  found  to  grow  more  uni- 
formly under  ordinary  treatment.  Measurements  also  showed 
that  the  bony  frame  in  each  of  the  dogs  was  about  the  same 

'  The  only  apology  1  have  to  offer  for  the  names  is  that  in  long-continued 
experiments  of  tliis  kind  names  must  be  chosen  for  daily  use,  and  need  to 
be,  with  dogs,  phonetically  distinct,  to  avoid  confusion.  I  thought  it  also 
desirable  for  long  series  of  notes  and  descriptions  that  the  name  suggest 
the  treatment  to  which  the  animal  was  subjected. 

-  .\leohol,  ordered  for  the  purpose  from  Kahlbaum,  was  used  throughout 
the  experiments,  and  each  lot  was  especially  tested.  The  plan  of  the  experi- 
ments, with  the  sub-committee's  approval,  was  to  give  as  large  doses  as  pos- 
sible short  of  producing  noticeable  intoxication.  This  dose  was  found  for 
the  dogs  to  be  four  cubic  centimetres  per  kilogramme  of  body  weight.  For 
further  details,  refer  to  Appletou's  Popular  Science  Monthly,  April,  1897. 


364  THE   LIQUOR    PROBLEM. 

in  relation  to  the  otliers  as  its  weiglit.  That  is,  there  was  no 
evidence  of  excessive  develoj)ment  of  fat  that  might  have  kept 
lip  the  weight  while  the  framework  of  the  body  remained  under- 
sized. Since  both  "  stunting"  and  accumulation  of  fat  are  often 
insisted  upon  as  due  to  direct  effects  of  alcohol,  these  are  impor- 
tant facts  in  its  general  physiology. 

Before  passing  to  topics  of  more  general  physiological  inter- 
est, we  may  turn  aside  for  a  moment  to  consider  briefly  three 
series  of  collateral  experiments. 

The  first  of  these,  begun  in  April,  189G,  had  for  its  object 
the  testing  of  ordinary  commercial  liquors,  an  ordinary  whiskey, 
wine,  and  beer.  Three  puppies  of  the  same  strain  and  from 
the  same  litter  were  secured,  and  the  respective  liquors  were 
administered  as  indicated  again  by  the  names  of  the  dogs.' 
Their  growth  chart,  with  Topsy's  and  Tipsy's  superimposed  for 
corresponding  months,  is  given  in  Fig.  6.  Frisky  and  Winnie 
are  seen  to  grow  normally,  while  Berry  falls  considerably  below. 
Their  health  remained  apparently  good  until  June,  when  they 
all  broke  out  with  eczema.  Berry  having  it  worst,  Winnie  not 
quite  so  bad,  and  Frisky  lightest  of  all.  The  growth  of  Frisky 
and  Winnie,  at  least,  indicates  the  absence  of  deleterious  ingre- 
dients in  the  wine  and  whiskey,  and  it  is  certainly  going  beyond 
the  evidence  to  attribute  the  eczema  to  anything  except  the 
water  in  the  liquors.  This  was  its  first  appearance  in  the  ken- 
nel, and  neither  Tipsy  nor  Bum  was  affected.  Kennel  man- 
uals uniformly  caution  against  making  the  food  of  puppies 
"  slojtpy,"  chiefly  on  account  of  danger  from  eczema,  and  the 
percentages  of  water  in  the  liquors  (whiskey,  Qlfi,  wine,  82fo, 
beer,  95.Tfo)  made  this  necessary,  especially  with  the  wine  and 
beer,  if  amounts  of  alcohol  at  all  comparable  with  the  other 
experiments  were  given. 

Two  more  experiments  were  made  to  test  whether  Berry's 
deficient  growth  should  be  considered  a  beer  effect.  One  of 
these  consisted  in  selecting  three  of  Topsy's  male  puppies  as 

1  Frisky's  dose  was  100  cc.  of  wliiskey,  of  SS^/^,  ;  Winnie's,  120  ee.  of 
wine,  Burgundy,  of  18'^/^,  ;  and  the  largest  amount  that  Berry  could  be 
induced  to  take  was  125  cc.  of  beer,  of  4.3 '';;{, ,  alcohol  content.  The  fate  of 
each  of  these  dogs  may  conveniently  be  stated  here  as  follows  :  Berry  was 
run  over  on  the  street  and  killed  in  the  fall  of  1S'J6,  Winnie  died  of  distem- 
per the  following  summer,  and  Frisky  is  still  alive. 


Minnehaha.  Bekky  II. 

Fig.  S.  —  November,  1897. 


INFLUENCE  OF   ALCOHOL  ON  GROWTH.  365 

comparable  as  possible,  and  giving  to  two  of  them  as  much 
beer  as  they  would  take,  keeping  the  third  one  on  normal  diet. 
Their  weights  are  shown  in  the  following  table :  — 

Weight  of  puppies,  third  beer  experiment. 


At  birth,  Oct.  20,  1897. 

Jan.  1,  1898,  beer,  50  cc. 
twice  daily  to  Jan.  8. 

Mar.  20, 1898,  beer,  100  cc. 

twice  daily  from  Jan.  8 

to  date.' 

Normal,  358  gms 

Berry  III.,  219  gms 

Berry  IV.,  218  gms 

3660  gms. 
3490  gms. 
3540  gms. 

6860  gms. 
7050  gms. 
7550  gms. 

'  Experiment  discontinued. 

Plainly  this  experiment  gives  no  support  to  the  first.  And 
nothing  abnormal  was  remarked  about  the  animals,  except  that 
they  became  much  more  timid  than  any  of  the  other  puj)pies  in 
the  kennel  at  the  time.  This  is  a  point  of  importance  to  be  re- 
served for  discussion  in  its  proper  place,  but  it  was  noted  that 
if  a  stranger  came  into  the  kennel,  all  the  normal  pups  would 
rush  forward  to  make  friends,  while  these  two  would  run  away. 

The  other  experiment,  begun  in  the  fall  of  1896,  and  con- 
tinued for  over  two  years,  was  made  with  three  of  Topsy's 
female  puppies.  One  was  given  normal  diet,  a  second  was 
given  beer,  and  the  third  had  an  amount  of  water  equal  to  the 
beer.  The  puppies  were  named  for  convenience,  respectively, 
Teeto,  Berry  II.,  and  Minnehaha.  A  few  of  their  weight  rela- 
tions may  be  read  below  :  — 


Weight  of  puppies. 

second  beer  experiment. 

At  birth,  Oct.  27,  189G. 

Jan.  1, 1896, 
beer  and  water, 
50  cc.  each. 
Jan.  17,  twice 
daUy,  75  cc. 

Jan.  24,  1S97, 
100  cc.  each 

twice  daily  to 
May,  1897. 

Oct.  10,  1897, 
200  cc.  once 
daily  tliere- 
after  to  last 
d.Ue. 

Mar.  12,  1898. 

Teeto,  250  gms.    .     .     . 
Berry  II.,  220  gms.  .     . 
Minnehaha,  260  gms.     . 

2660 
3280 
3100 

3690 
4650 
4280 

7000 
9570 
9300 

8510 

11,.390 

9470 

Relations  of  stature  are  equally  instructive,  and  may  be  given 
for  November  14,  189T,  when  the  dogs  had  practically  attained 
their  growth :  — 


366  THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

Length  in  cm.  Height  in  cm. 

Berry  II 08  Xi 

Minnehaha 01  24 

Teeto 51..5  24 

Topsy 01  31 

Nig- 01  -Zd 

These  size  relations  are  further  shown  in  Fig.  8,  whicli  siioukl 
be  compared  with  Fig.  7,  before  deciding  upon  any  "  stunting  " 
effect  of  beer. 

It  sliouhl  be  added  that  Teeto  was  the  only  well-formed  dog 
in  the  group.  Both  Minnehaha  and  Berry  II.  presented  the 
lanky,  scrawny  appearance  characteristic  of  the  dogs  in  the 
first  experiment.  Both  Teeto  and  Minnehaha  conceived  nor- 
mally, while  Berry  proved  completely  sterile. 

The  beer  was  given,  as  in  the  case  of  alcohol  and  the  other 
liquors,  uniformly  with  the  meals,  twice  daily  nj)  to  about  six 
months  of  age  and  once  daily  thereafter.  Although  frequently 
offered,  none  of  the  animals  ever  took  any  of  the  liquors  when 
unmixed  with  food,  and  no  trace  of  an  "  alcohol  habit  "  could 
be  detected.  The  reverse,  in  fact,  was  uniforndy  noted,  and, 
when  given  the  choice,  all  the  dogs  experimented  with  showed 
a  decided  preference  for  food  that  did  not  contain  alcohol  or 
any  form  of  alcoholic  liquor. 

Having  gained  a  general  introduction  to  all  the  dogs  in  the 
kennel,  we  may  now  take  up  the  dift'erent  phases  of  their  gen- 
eral physiology.  And  first  we  may  properly  discuss  the  health, 
vigor,  and  freedom  from  disease  of  all  the  animals  for  the  entire 
research. 

Kennel  hygiene  has  been  maintained  practically  perfect 
throughout.  The  dogs  have  had  a  large  sunny  yard  of  nearly 
a  quarter  of  an  acre,  and  whenever  possible  have  been  given 
complete  freedom  besides.  They  have  had  a  new,  dry,  clean 
kennel,  which  has  been  thoroughly  disinfected  twice  a  year,  the 
best  of  food,  Spratt's  biscuit,  milk,  eggs,  wholesome  meat,  and 
plenty  of  gnawing  bones  :  and  clean  fresh  water,  renewed  twice 
and  three  times  a  day  in  warm  weather.  Regular  and  careful 
attention  was  given  to  both  external  and  internal  parasites,  and 
no  complications  have  arisen  from  these  sources.  All  these 
conditions  have  conspired  to  render  the  experiments  physiologi- 
cally ideal.     As  a  consequence,  with  one  exception, >  the  health 

'  In  the  spring  of  1896  Bum  developed  unilateral  goitre.     This  yielded 


*""'  _                                                       -      _                  ^  -      .  : 

JL 

-, .!_-„-  1 

ICCi_                                            -                                          I   ieSS--Z 

"•^"■-jS                                             "         ^            s;"^^. 

?\     V                    -^1^                     -/^--      ^i.             ^      :                 ^Sn,                                       An- 

t^I    ^cs^        Zi    ^v      Jl           ^-      S                44?^         /           CilJ-, 

Z  ^z            '5-;     15  3u]     L.j^E-'S       ii'-^     L^-^^yAli-- 

iooZ-'/-'t    •  s:_/^  z  '5tf-     tit-'tt     ^-^  i^v'l  ^,  ^-'--i.    j^. 

"   :'-•    [^*       -K    Si'"-'    ^■^"^s.LAC      5L^^£<.-vB      Ov-^    ^    1i,Z-^l. 

••""■"  "±1      >:.  '             1^-1    """      sz!  ~       "'■■     '    "^^  ^^ 

''".„^.r'^'         ^oimyaE    _ ---      3cj                    -i;;i-3cc 

iraut            .    iiw..vi/n^ — ^-           -jkw                    3D»SE    ' 

X            i          ALCOHOLIC     '^                                 "4=""    '^ 

o-     T         It  ;  1  BAROMirEt^ r"      "                :,,  "x 

Fig.  0.  —  Daily  Activity. 


ALCOHOL     TO    BUM   35  G. DAILY 


NO     ALCOHOL  GIVEN 


/ 

^-- 

// 

~^^ 

\ 

^ 



/ 

:/ 

\ 

/ 

^ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\, 

/ 

1 

1 1 

\ 

^ 

/ 

1 

\ 

/ 
\ 

/ 

1 

:x 

" 

/ 

--- 

--' 

\ 

^.  " 

\ 

V 

/ 

// 

\ 

> 

,/ 

►' 

y 

^, 

\ 

X" 

[ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

**»* 

y 

^■-- 

--' 

"  ^ 

^^ 

N 

• 

^^' 

■ 

/ 

J7^        18  19  ZQ  Zt  Z3.         i3  ^4  A3  26  47  26         29  30 

Nig  RETEre\TEB    ^^^^— ^ 

"     Attempts  ■ 

Bum  Retrieves    -  —  -  - 

"       Attempts - 

Fig.  10.  —  Curve  op  Efficiency  (Competitive).  In  a  difficult  competitive  test  calling 
for  endurance,  sustained  attention,  etc.,  the  alcoholic  falls  much  lower  relatively  than  in 
ordinary  dailj  activity,  Bum  attaining  to  only  thirty-two  per  cent,  of  Nig's  efficiency. 


INFLUENCE   OF    ALCOHOL   ON   GROWTH.  3G7 

of  the  clogs  remained  perfect  for  nearly  two  years  and  a 
half. 

The  spring  and  early  summer  of  1897  were  extremely  wet. 
Distemper  became  epidemic  throughout  the  city,  and  assumed 
a  malignant  type.  Sick  dogs  were  not  uncommon  on  the 
streets.  Many  dogs  died,  Mr.  Browning's  kennel,  from  which 
all  the  females  in  our  experiments  were  obtained,  losing  fifteen 
outright.  Of  course,  this  sickness  and  loss  occurred  in  kennels, 
and  among  individuals  maintained  under  what  are  usually 
considered  normal  conditions.  The  history  of  the  epidemic 
in  our  own  kennel  thus  derives  practically  all  its  significance 
from  the  possession  of  adequate  controls  in  the  normal  dogs. 

The  dogs  in  the  kennel  at  the  time  were  :  — 

Alcoholic.  Normal. 

Bum,  Nig, 

Tipsy,  Topsy  II., 

Frisky,  Teeto, 

Winnie,  Minneliaha. 
Beny  II. 

The  disease  appeared  first  in  Winnie,  July  6,  and  she  died 
the  evening  of  the  8th.  She  had  four  days  previouslj'  given 
birth  to  four  whelps,  all  of  which  had  died  before  the  close  of 
their  second  day.  Tipsy  was  second  to  come  down,  July  9th. 
The  affected  dogs  were  promptly  isolated  from  the  rest,  but 
Frisky  was  added  to  their  number  July  12,  and  Bum  the  day 
following. 

I  have  since  been  assured  that  they  all  passed  through  a  mild 
form  of  the  disease,  but  none  of  the  other  dogs  developed  the 
more  characteristic  symptoms  of  distemper.  They  were  all 
rather  sluggish  for  a  few  days,  and  discharged  somewhat  from 
the  eyes  and  nose  ;  but  they  were  not  observed  to  cough  and 
retch,  and  they  did  not  lose  flesh  or  appetite. 

With  the  four  alcoholic  dogs  it  assumed  its  severest  form. 
The  symptoms  usually  described  as  diagnostic  developed  rap- 
idly, excessive  weakness  and  prostration,  great  loss  of  flesh,  and 
complete  absence  of  appetite.  Frisky,  however,  rallied  promptly, 
and  was  out  of  danger  within  a  week.     With  Tipsy  and  Bum 

promptly  to  the  proper  treatment,  which  consisted  in  painting  with  tincture 
of  iodine,  and  giving  small  doses  of  dessicated  tliyroid,  and  has  not  ap- 
peared since. 


368  THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

the  disease  assumed  a  niucli  more  serious  form.  Both  were 
affected  exactly  alike,  were  completely  prostrated,  and  refused 
nourishment  of  every  kind,  so  that  for  a  week  I  was  compelled 
to  drench  them  with  hot  milk  and  eggs  at  frequent  intervals. 
In  both  eases  the  corneas  ulcerated  badly,  the  idcers  being  held 
in  check  with  great  difficulty  by  frequent  applications  of  eye 
washes.  All  four  corneas  became  completely  clouded,  and  both 
dogs  were  tempoi-arily  blind.  For  over  two  weeks  I  hardly 
expected  either  of  the  dogs  to  live  from  day  to  day.  Under 
ordinary  care,  I  have  little  doubt  that  both  would  have  died. 
I  resorted,  however,  to  every  possible  device  for  feeding  and 
proper  medication.  Alcohol  was  omitted  from  their  diet,  and 
though  frecpiently  offered  to  them,  they  invariably  refused  food 
containing  it. 

After  their  severe  sickness  both  dogs  gained  flesh  rapidly, 
and  none  of  the  nervous  sequel.-e,  so  often  worse  than  distemper 
itself,  made  their  ajipearance.  The  eyes  healed  and  cleared  up, 
with  the  exception  of  one  of  Tipsy's,  which  remained  perma- 
nently clouded  and  blind. 

In  a  word,  the  line  was  quite  sharply  drawn  in  the  kennel 
between  the  normal  and  alcoholic  dogs.  All  the  alcoholic  dogs, 
with  excei^tion  of  Berry  II.,  and  she  had  had  the  least  alcohol 
of  all,  had  the  disease  with  considerable  or  very  great  severity. 
All  the  normal  dogs  had  it  in  the  mildest  form  possible.  This 
would  seem  to  indicate,  for  distemper,  at  least,  if  not  increased 
susceptibility  to  infection,  a  much  diminished  power  of  resist- 
ance on  the  part  of  the  alcoholic  dogs.  The  bearing  of  this 
result  on  various  human  diseases  is  too  patent  to  require  refer- 
ence. Distemper  would  probably  prove  an  intei-esting  disease 
with  which  to  study,  in  greater  detail  and  with  more  exactness 
than  was  possible  under  the  circumstances,  comparative  suscep- 
tibility to  infection  and  resistance  to  disease  in  alcoholic  and 
normal  animals. 

The  normal  daily  activity  of  the  animals,  development  of  in- 
telligence, and  ability  to  withstand  fatigue  in  the  performance 
of  difficult  muscular  feats,  are  topics  naturally  associated  with 
the  health  and  vigor  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  systems.  To 
test  daily  activity  a  form  of  pedometer  was  devised  ^  which  could 

1  For  these  pedometers  Waterbury  watches  were  taken,  the  hair  springs 
removed,  the  balance  wheel  weighted  on  one  side,  and  guard  pins  inserted 


Tipsy.  Nig. 

Fig.  13.  —  November,  1805. 


BpM. 


Tll'SV.  NlG. 

Fig.  --'O.  —  December  1,  1900. 


INFLUENCE  OF  ALCOHOL   ON   GROWTH.  369 

be  strapped  in  the  dogs'  collars  and  read  at  corresponding  times. 
Soon  after  beginning  to  administer  alcohol  it  was  often  noted 
that  the  normal  dogs  were  playing  actively  while  the  others  were 
quiet.  A  quantitative  expression  of  this  difference  is  given  for 
the  months  indicated  in  1896,  in  Fig.  9,  and  since  a  number 
of  investigations  have  shown  that  muscular  and  mental  ability 
in  men  and  animals  tend  to  vary  with  the  barometer,  its  curve 
for  the  time  is  superimposed. ^  Bum  is  seen  to  develop  only  71f> 
of  Nig's,  and  Tipsy  only  51  fj  of  Topsy's  spontaneous  activity. 
A  like  tendency  to  quiet  was  noted  in  the  other  dogs  to  which 
alcoholic  liquors  were  given  with  exception  of  those  having 
beer.     They,  to  all  apjiearance,  remained  as  lively  as  ever.^ 

These  results  give,  of  course,  no  expression  of  the  quality  of 
activity,  and  to  devise  a  test  that  would  give  the  comparative 
ability  of  the  dogs  as  to  strength,  endurance,  and  resistance  to 
fatigue,  they  were  all  taught  to  retrieve  a  ball  when  thrown. 
When  it  was  desired  to  make  a  test,  the  dogs  were  all  taken  to 
the  university  gymnasium,  and  a  rubber  ball  was  thrown  across 
the  room,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  feet,  as  fast  as  it  could  be 
retrieved.  A  record  was  kept  of  all  the  dogs  that  started  for  the 
ball,  and  of  the  one  that  brought  it  back.  One  hundred  balls 
constituted  a  test,  and  to  throw  them  consumed  about  fifty 
minutes. 

The  first  series  consisted  of  1400  balls,  thrown  on  fourteen 
successive  days,  Januarj',  1896,  and  the  two  normal  dogs  re- 
trieved 922,  the  alcoholics,  478.  This  gives  the  alcoholics  an  ef- 
ficiency of  51.9^0  as  compared  with  the  normals.     Bum's  ability 

that  wouUl  permit  the  release  of  one  tooth  of  the  escapement  every  time 
the  watch  was  shaken.  A  very  delicate  pedometer  resulted  that  recorded 
every  movement  of  the  animal.  Two  of  these  were  carefully  adjusted  so  as 
to  run  alike,  in  whatever  position  placed  or  however  shaken,  and  were  then 
placed  in  stout  leather  pockets  in  the  collars  of  the  two  dogs  whose  activity 
it  was  desired  to  test.  They  were  then  read  daily  at  exactly  the  same  time, 
six  o'clock  P.  M.  To  insure  any  change  in  the  watches  affecting  the  results, 
they  were  interchanged  from  dog  to  dog  every  three  days,  so  that  each  dog 
wore  the  same  watch  the  same  number  of  days.  No  such  variation,  how- 
ever, in  the  watches  was  observed  to  occur. 

1  For  the  barometric  record  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Martin  Green,  of 
Worcester. 

^  Dr.  Stewart  obtained  a  similar  result  with  rats,  except  that  there  was 
an  initial  increase  of  activity  on  beginning  administration  of  alcohol. 


370 


THE   LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 


60 


ao 


40 

Re«t« 


^ 

\ 

r 

Di 

V* 

r 

( 

> 

\ 

. 

1 

^ 

"- 

^ 

^ 

\ 

^ 

s 

/ 

V 

« 

.. 

^ 

,^ 

,,- 

14 

%^- 

• 

/ 

Al 

Mil 

^y 

fj" 

^ 

■ — 

N 

/ 

^ 

'Tg 

? 

, 

s 

' 

'. 

^*' 

RT' 

'. 

,• 

•■ 

'* 

'' 

ll 

tli 

IS! 

Flo.  11.     Chart  of  Ball  Tests. 


as  compared  with  Nig's  is  only  32^o  (see  Fig.  10).     Tipsy  and 
Ball*  Bum  also  gave  evidence  of  very 

100  — I — I — I     much  greater  fatigue.    A  similar 

series  of  1000  balls,  November, 
1896,  in  which  Bum  and  Nig- 
only  participated,  shows  about 
the  same  result,  and  expresses 
(Fig.  11)  these  relations  as  to 
fatigue  more  exactly.  Nig's 
curve  of  achievement  is  also  seen 
to  run  much  closer  to  his  curve 
of  attempt  than  in  Bum's  case, 
in  both  charts,  and  this  affords 
good  evidence  of  his  greater 
alertness,  strength,  and  energy. 
These  differences,  especially 
on  the  psychic  side,  are  well 
shown  by  all  the  photographs 
that  have  been  taken.  Comparison  of  the  faces  in  Figs.  5,  12, 
13,  and  20  demonstrate  this  too  clearly  to  require  further  com- 
ment. It  should  be  noted,  however,  in  Fig.  20,  that  Bum  is 
completely  blind,  which  give  the  eyes  a  somewhat  more  wide- 
awake expression,  and  the  direct  sunlight,  in  which  the  picture 
is  taken  is  rather  strong  for  the  eyes  of  the  other  dogs. 

Administration  of  alcohol  was  discontinued  November  1, 1898, 
in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  effects  of  alcohol  already  noted 
were  transient  or  permanent.  This  point  in  the  reseai-ch  has 
special  reference  to  its  influence  on  progeny,  as  will  be  described 
under  that  head,  but  it  is  also  of  interest  in  connection  with 
the  normal  activity  of  the  animals.  This  was  at  the  beginning 
of  Tipsy's  last  gestation  period,  and  no  marked  change  in  her 
general  behavior  could  be  noted  up  to  the  time  of  her  death  the 
following  December. 

Bum's  activity  improved  slowly,  so  that  by  the  end  of  a  year 
it  had  attained  practical  equality  with  Nig's,  a  test  with  the 
watches  at  this  time  giving  the  relation  of  95j?o  to  Nig's  100^. 
Ball  tests,  also,  made  in  the  spring  and  fall  of  1899,  showed 
him  to  be  about  Nig's  equal  both  in  alertness  and  endurance. 

During  the  winter  of  1899-1900,  without  any  apparent  cause, 
atrophy  of  both  retinte  began  to  be  noticeable,  and  by  the  spring 


Fii;.  14.  —  Bdm,  NovKMBEit,  IS'.C) 


Fig.  1.5.  —  Nig,  November,  ii<'X) 


INFLUENCE  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  GROWTH.  371 

of  1900  Bum  had  become  totally  blind.  This,  of  course,  has 
made  further  tests  of  activity  and  strength  either  impossible  or 
useless.  For  the  past  season  he  has  also  been  the  only  dog  in 
the  kennel  to  suffer  from  eczema.  This  has  involved  large 
tracts  of  the  skin,  and  has  been  difficult  to  heal  or  control. 
Both  these  afflictions  have  contributed  to  give  to  Bum  the 
appearance  of  an  old  feeble  dog,  while  Nig  is  still  in  tlie  prime 
of  health  and  vigor. 

On  the  side  of  general  intelligence  the  alcoholic  dogs  have 
been  in  no  wise  inferior  to  their  mates.  They  have  been,  if 
anything,  more  teachable  and  much  more  easily  controlled  in 
learning  the  few  things  necessary  to  their  education. 

A  striking  result  of  the  entire  research,  and  one  entirely 
unexpected  on  account  of  the  small  doses  of  alcohol  given,  has 
been  the  extreme  timidity  of  the  alcoholic  dogs.  Magnan  ob- 
tained a  similar  result  with  his  dog,  more  extreme,  because  he 
gave  large  amounts  of  alcohol.  While  able  to  hold  their  own 
with  the  other  dogs  in  the  kennel,  the  least  thing  out  of  the 
ordinary  caused  practically  all  the  alcoholic  dogs  to  exhibit  fear, 
where  the  others  evinced  only  curiosity  or  interest.  Whistles 
and  bells,  in  the  distance,  never  ceased  to  throw  them  into  a 
panic  in  which  they  howled  and  yelped  while  the  normal  dogs 
simply  barked.  This  holds  true  of  all  the  dogs  that  had  alco- 
hol in  any  amount.  During  the  first  year  of  the  experiment 
Bum  had  a  number  of  paroxysms  of  causeless  fear  with  some 
evidence  of  hallucinations.  He  would  apjiarently  start  at  some 
imaginary  object,  and  go  into  a  fit  of  howling. 

This  point  is  well  illustrated  by  photographs  taken  on  the 
same  day  and  under  exactly  similar  conditions.    (Figs.  14-17.) 

It  would  seem  from  all  the  evidence  that  we  are  dealing  with 
one  of  the  profound  physiological  causes  of  fear,  having  wide 
applications  to  its  phenomena  in  man.  Fear  is  commonly  re- 
cognized as  a  characteristic  feature  in  alcoholic  insanity,  and 
delirium  tremens  is  the  most  terrible  fear  psychosis  known. 
We  should  naturally  look  for  its  effects  in  the  cells  of  the  brain 
itself,  and  the  researches  of  Dehio,  Berkley,  and  Stewart  all 
point  to  alterations  in  various  staining  reactions  in  these  cells. 

W^ith  the  discontinuance  of  alcohol  in  the  diet  the  more  acute 
features  of  this  reaction  have  subsided,  leaving,  however,  the 
characteristic  timidity  as  a  habit  of  life  that  does  not  seem  to 
wholly  fade  out. 


372  THE   LIQUOR   PR0BLF:M. 

It  remains  to  discuss  the  reproductive  histories  of  our  animals 
and  the  influence  of  alcoliol  upon  their  progeny,  and  here  we 
find  the  most  definite  results  of  the  entire  research. 

The  first  three  sexual  periods  are  indicated  by  interconnect- 
ing lines  upon  the  growth  chart,  Fig.  6,  and  stars  in  the  course 
of  Topsy's  and  Tipsy's  curves  give  the  number  of  whelps.  At 
the  first  period  Topsy  conceived  normally,  while  Tipsy  did  not. 
This  may  be  interpreted  as  an  effect  of  alcohol  in  retarding 
develo])ment  of  the  sexual  organs,  but  it  occurs  rather  too  often 
in  kennels  to  be  insisted  upon. 

Topsy's  small  frame  made  whelping  extremely  difficult,  and 
she  died  as  a  result  of  this  and  lack  of  proper  assistance  in 
time.'  At  the  next  period,  Tipsy  is  seen  to  conceive  normally, 
giving  birth  to  seven  whelps.  Two  of  these  were  hare-lipped, 
and  two  were  born  dead.  There  were  four  whelps  apparently 
normal  in  every  respect.  In  Tipsy's  next  litter,  seven  in  num- 
ber, three  were  deformed,  two  were  born  dead,  and  the  others 
proved  non-viable.'^  The  next  litter,  of  six.  had  three  deformed, 
two  born  dead,  and  all  non-viable.  Alcohol  was  discontinued 
at  the  beginning  of  the  next  gestation  in  order  to  ascertain 
whether  the  excess  of  deformity  and  especially  the  non-viabil- 
ity of  the  offspring  were  a  direct  nutritional  influence  of  alcohol 
upon  development  of  embryos  in  iitero  or  attributable  to  its 
more  general  effects  upon  the  maternal  organism  as  a  whole.^ 
This  litter  consisted  of  three  whelps,  all  perfectly  formed,  but 
all  born  dead,  and,  in  spite  of  very  prompt  assistance  and  the 
best  care  possible.  Tipsy  died  with  them.* 

On  the  side  of  the  normal  pair  there  is  nothing  out  of  the 
ordinai-y  to  be  remarked.     There  have  been  eight  litters  born 

^  It  is  commonly  recognized  in  kennel  management  that  undersized 
bitches  are  likely  to  give  trouble  in  this  way.  It  was,  moreover,  my  first 
experience  of  the  kind,  necessary  assistance  was  delayed  until  it  was  too 
late. 

^  Milk  appeared  normal  in  quality  and  abundance,  but  the  whelps  refused 
to  suck. 

''  Bum  had  been  used  for  service  of  bitches  in  other  kennels  with  uni- 
formly normal  results. 

*  At  autopsy  the  walls  of  the  uterus  were  found  to  be  extremely  thin  and 
much  infiltrated  with  fat.  Whether  this  latter  condition  is  to  be  attributed 
to  alcohol  or  to  the  post-partem  fever  must  remain  for  pathologists  to 
decide.     It  was  not  present  in  the  similar  case  of  Topsy  1. 


Fill.    ll'i.  —  TirsY.     XoVKMKKU,    1>- 


Fir,.   17.  —  TOPSV.  XOVKMKKK,  isa') 


INFLUENCE   OF   ALCOHOL   ON   GROWTH.  373 

up  to  (late,  and  there  is  every  prospect  of  as  niauy  uiore.  While 
hare-lips  have  ajjpeared  in  three  litters,  there  has  been  no  other 
deformity,  and  all  the  other  whelps  have  been  not  only  viable, 
but  exceptionally  vigorous. 

For  the  sake  of  ready  conijiarison  this   history  of  the  two 
pairs  is  exjjressed  visually  in  Fig.  18  and  again  numerically  iu 

0000€.^«        OOOOC 
€€€)Ct/^«        OOO 

€€«cet^         oooooooo 

•  ••+  OOOOOOM. 

ooooo 
oooooo 

OOO 
OOOOOOi/ 


O     c     • 


Fig.  10.     Coml).ir.ltive  tabulation  of  the  otfspring  of  .alcoholic  .ind  normal  Jiairs  of  Jofrs, 
and  of  ten  inebriate  and  normal  families  (after  Demme). 

Fig.  19,  together  with  a  tabulation  of  strikingly  similar  results 
of  Professor  Demme,  obtained  from  comparative  observations 
upon  alcoholic  and  non-alcoholic  families. 

INFLUENCE  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  PROGENY  —  DOGS. 


Bum  —  Tipsy. 

Nig  — Topsy. 

No.  of  whelps    (7-7- 

-6-3) 

23 

(5-3-8-8-5-6-3-7)  45 

Deformed           (2-3- 

-3-0) 

8 

(1-0-0-2-0-0-0-1)    4 

Born  dead          (2-2- 

-2-3) 

9 

(0_0-0-0-0-0-0-())    0 

Viable                 (-1-0- 

-0-0) 

4: 

=  17 

.4 

'I 

(4-3-8-5-5-6-3-6)  41  =90.2 1^ 

MEN 

— 

DEMME. 

10  Alcoholic  families. 

10  Normal  families. 

No.  of  children 

57 

61 

Deformed 

10 

2 

Idiotic 

6 

0 

Epileptic,  choreic 

6 

(2  Bkwrd)  0 

Noii-viable 

25 

3 

Normal 

10  I 

[1?) 

= 

17<5, 

'o                                   54  =  88.5^ 

374  THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

Frisky  was  mated  with  Bum,  aud  has  up  to  the  present  given 
birth  to  six  litters.  She  had  been  given  whiskey  from  April, 
1896,  to  >fovember,  1897.     Their  history  is  as  follows:  — 

Number  of  whelps  (4-6-4-5-3-5)  27 
Deformed  (0-l-0-'2-l-2)    6 

Horn  dead  (0-0-1-0-0-0)     1 

Viable  (4^5  ?  i-0-O-O-l)  10  z=:  37'^^, 

Alcohol  was  also  discontinued  in  her  case  from  November, 
1898,  but  in  the  two  subsequent  litters  none  of  the  whelps  were 
viable,  and  only  one  was  viable  in  the  third.  In  the  whiskey, 
Frisky  did  not  receive  as  much  alcohol  as  Tipsy,  and  it  was 
given  her  case  about  one  year  less,  but,  aside  from  this,  her 
reproductive  history  forms  a  rather  close  pai-allel  to  Tijisy's. 

In  the  matter  of  non-viability  these  puppies  seemed  as  inex- 
plicable as  many  similar  cases  in  man.  In  weight  they  were 
equal  to,  or  exceeded,  many  of  Topsy's  viable  whelps.  They 
simply  would  not  put  forth  the  least  effort  to  make  a  live  of  it. 
I  spent  hours  milking  in  tiieir  mouths,  but  to  no  avail.  Exam- 
ination of  the  brains  of  a  number  of  these  pups  failed  to  show 
any  traces  of  medulation  ;  whereas  normal  whelps  killed  at 
birth  were  found  to  possess  medulated  fibres  in  the  sensori- 
motor areas.  No  other  malformations  could  be  detected,  and 
this  seems  to  be  the  only  clue  to  their  lack  of  vigor.'- 

Considered  in  relation  to  the  general  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject, our  experiments  supply  additional  evidence  to  prove  that 
alcohol  in  small  amounts  exerts  an  inhibiting  or  sedative  influ- 
ence upon  certain  physiological  processes.  This  is  seen  in  its 
effect  in  slowing  the  growth  of  yeast,  and,  while  bodily  growth 
has  not  been  interfered  with  under  the  conditions  of  most  of 
our  experiments,  it  is  plainly  indicated  in  lowering  the  normal 
activities  of  animals  to  which  it  has  been  administered.  The 
evidence  also  supports  the  general  conclusions  of  hygienists  that 
in  feats  of  strength  and  endurance  alcohol  should  be  avoided. 
Alcoholic  dogs  also  showed  diminished  resistance  to  distemper 
as  compared  with  noi-mal  animala  under  the  same  kennel  man- 
agement. 

On  the  psychic  side  kittens   showed  a  sudden  collapse,  not 

^  Two  of  these  were  killed  at  birth  for  examination  of  brains. 
^  I  am  largely  indebted  for  these  results  to  Dr.  Frederick  Burk. 


INFLUENCE   OF   ALCOHOL   ON   GROWTH.  375 

only  of  intelligence,  but  even  of  fundamental  instincts.  While 
this  was  soon  complicated  by  disease,  nothing-  so  complete  was 
observed  in  control  animals  similarly  affected.  AVith  dogs  no 
impairment  of  general  intelligence  was  manifested,  except  that 
timidity  develoi)ed  as  a  characteristic  psychosis  in  all  those  to 
which  alcohol  was  given.  This  confirms  tiie  results  of  other 
experiments  on  dogs,  and  also  has  wide  application  to  the 
human  problem,  fear  being  characteristic  of  acute  alcoholic 
poisoning  and  of  alcoholic  insanities. 

Possibly  the  most  imjiortant  of  our  results  relates  to  the  vigor 
and  normality  of  offspring.  We  do  not  attach  much  importance 
to  the  greater  percentage  of  deformity,  since  this  is  of  somewhat 
common  occurrence  in  kennels,  and  our  cases  are  too  few.  In 
respect,  however,  to  vigor  and  viability  of  offspring  the  differ- 
ence between  normal  and  alcoholic  pairs  is  more  striking.  This 
result,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  may  stinuilate  to  much  more  extended 
reseai'ch  in  this  imi)ortant  field. 

While  the  exjieriments  are  admittedly  too  fe^v  to  serve  as 
basis  for  more  definite  general  conclusions,  the  possession  of 
control  animals  adds  considerably  to  their  value.  And  the 
great  amount  of  time  and  labor  necessary  to  their  prosecution 
must  justify  adding  the  foregoing  results  to  the  literature  of  the 
subject. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  ACUTE  ALCOHOLISM  ON 

THE  NORMAL   VITAL  RESISTANCE  OF 

RABBITS   TO   INFECTION. 

By  a.  C.  ABBOTT,  M.  D.. 

FIRST    ASSISTANT,    LAI50RAT0RY    OF    HYGIENE, 
UNIVERSITY    OF    PENNSYLVANIA. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  ACUTE  ALCOHOLISM  ON 
THE  NORMAL  VITAL  RESISTANCE  OF  RAB- 
BITS TO   INFECTION.' 

In  the  distribution  of  the  several  siibtlivisions  of  the  general 
question  relating  to  the  influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  physical 
anil  moral  well-being  of  those  who  use  it  as  a  beverage,  the 
Committee  saw  proper  to  assign  to  Dr.  Abbott  for  experimental 
solution  the  question  concerning  the  influence  of  alcoholism, 
acute  and  chronic,  upon  the  normal  vital  resistance  of  animals 
to  various  forms  of  infection. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  work  a  general  scheme  of  procedure 
was  drawn  up  that  seemed  to  meet  most  of  the  requirements  of 
the  problem,  but  it  was  found  possible  to  cover  onlj'  a  limited 
portion  of  the  ground  included  in  this  scheme  within  the  time 
allotted  to  the  investigation. 

The  lines  along  which  it  was  proposed  to  conduct  these  inves- 
tigations are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Determine  if  the  normal  vital  resistance  of  animals  to  in- 
fection by  the  connnon  pathogenic  bacteria  is  demonstrably 
influenced  by  either  acute  or  chronic  alcoholism,  induced  through 
the  use  of  known  amounts  of  jnue  ethyl  alcohol. 

2.  If  any  or  no  effect  is  observed,  determine  if  the  same  holds 
good  for  animals  under  the  influence  of  the  commoner  alcoholic 
beverages,  as  beer,  wine,  whiskey,  cordials,  etc. 

3.  Determine  if  through  either  acute  or  chronic  alcoholism 
the  germicidal  properties  of  the  serum  of  the  blood  of  animals 
is  materially  altered.  If  so,  determine,  if  possible,  the  nature 
of  this  alteration. 

'  Abstract  of  a  paper  wliich  appeared  in  vol.  i.,  1S9G,  of  the  Jaurnal  of 
Experimental  Medicine. 

Investijiations  bearing  upon  paragraph  3  have  been  conducted  independ- 
ently 1)\-  Dr.  Alibott  and  Dr.  Bergey,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  pnblislied  under  the  title,  "The  Influence  of  Alcoholic  Intoxication  upon 
certain  factors  concerned  in  the  Phenomenon  of  HiEmolysis,"  in  the  August 


380  THE   LIQUOR   PKOIiLKM. 

The  results  presented  in  this  paper  refer  only  to  the  influence 
of  acute  alcoholism  upon  the  resistance  of  rabbits  to  infection 
by  the  pyogenic  cocci  —  i.  e.  the  streptococcus  pyogenes  (erysi- 
pelatos)  and  the  staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  —  and  by  the 
bacillus  coli  communis.  They  are  in  many  ways  sufficiently 
instructive  to  warrant  their  publication. 

The  following  abstract  will  serve  to  present  in  general  the 
lines  along  which  the  .study  was  projected  and  the  results  ob- 
tained.    The  details  are  given  in  full  in  the  original  paper. 

A  difficulty  that  arose  at  the  outset  was  in  procuring  cultiu'es 
of  pathogenic  organisms  of  suitably  diminished  virulence  with- 
out their  being  at  the  same  time  totally  devoid  of  this  property. 
As  experience  has  taught  us  to  expect  certain  deviations  from 
the  usual  course  of  infection  when  normal  animals  are  inocu- 
lated with  attenuated  cultures,  such,  for  instance,  as  prolonga- 
tion of  the  period  of  incubation  and  modification  of  the  i)atho- 
logical  lesions,  the  jiroblem  under  consideration  seemed  to  be  in 
part  most  easy  of  solution  through  a  comparison  of  results  ob- 

and  September  number  of  the  Un'wersitij  of  Pennsylvania  Medical  Bulletin 
for  1902. 

The  points  considered  by  tlie  authors  in  this  paper  were  :  — 

1.  Does  alcohol  administered  per  os  influence  the  complement  content 
(Ehrlich's  nomenclature)  of  the  blood  of  r.abbits  ? 

2.  Does  alcohol  similarly  administered  have  an  influence  upon  the  specific 
blood  reactions  of  rabbits  already  artificially  immunized  against  an  alien 
blood  ? 

3.  Does  alcohol  similarly  administered  have  any  influence  upon  the  pro- 
cess of  artificial  immunization  bj'  an  alien  blood  ? 

The  results  of  studies  upon  these  three  questions  seem  to  warrant  the 
following  conclusions  :  — 

1.  The  daily  administration  of  alcohol  per  os  to  rabbits  brings  about  a  re- 
duction in  their  circulating  blood  of  the  hismolytio  complement. 

2.  Slight  alterations  in  the  normal  alkalinity  of  the  blood  serum  have  no 
demonstrable  influence  upon  the  (hsemolytic)  complement  of  the  blood  of 
alcoholized  rabbits. 

3.  The  diminished  reactivating  power  of  the  blood  of  alcoholized  rabbits 
is  not  due  to  the  presence  of  sniiill  amounts  of  alcohol  as  such  in  the  blood. 

4.  The  administration  of  alcohol  to  rabbits  induces  not  only  a  marked  re- 
duction in  the  complement  content  of  their  blood,  but  may  cause,  at  the  same 
time,  a  reduction  in  the  specific  haemolytic  receptor  iu  the  blood  of  rabbits 
artificially  immunized  against  an  alien  blood. 

5.,  The  diminished  complement  content  of  the  blood  of  alcoholized  rabbits 
renders  the  animal  more  susceptible  to  the  toxic  action  by  an  alien  blood. 


INFLUENCE   OF   ALCOHOLISM   ON    RABBITS.  381 

tained  by  the  use  of  such  cultures  on  groups  of  alcoholized  and 
non-alcoholized  animals.  Should  such  modifications  occur  in  the 
normal  animals  as  would  be  anticipated,  and  an  infection  not 
differing  from  that  produced  by  fully  virulent  cultures  occur 
in  the  alcoholized  animals,  the  difference  could  reasonablj'  be 
referred  to  a  reduction  of  vital  resistance  brought  about  by  the 
alcohol  administered. 

To  meet  the  requirements  it  would  perhaps  have  been  best  to 
have  employed  cultures  of  organisms  that  were  diminished  in 
virulence  to  definite  degrees  of  attenuation,  such,  for  instance, 
as  the  bacillus  anthracis  attenuated  to  the  degree  of  virulence 
represented  by  its  primary  and  secondary  vaccines.  As  such 
material  was  not  available,  however,  cultures  of  another  sort 
were  used,  namely,  those  that  were  of  a  low  degree  of  virulence 
without  this  degree  being  definitely  determined. 

Again,  cultures  of  organisms  were  employed,  the  pathogenic 
powers  of  which  are  usually  irregular  and  uncertain  ;  while  in 
still  other  tests  an  effort  was  made  to  detect  a  difference  be- 
tween alcoholized  and  non-alcoholized  animals  when  inoculated 
with  virulent  material,  but  in  very  small  doses,  hoping  in  this 
way  to  demonstrate,  by  a  difference  in  the  period  of  incubation, 
a  difference  of  resistance  in  the  animals  composing  the  two 
groups. 

The  experiments  were  made  with  cultures  of  streptococcus 
pyogenes  of  a  low  degree  of  virulence,  with  noi-mal  baccillus 
coli  communis,  and  with  virulent  staphylococcus  pyogenes  au- 
reus, and,  as  the  results  to  be  reported  show,  with  vei-y  diverse 
consequences. 

Another  difficult}'  was  encountered  in  regulating  the  dose  of 
alcohol.  The  intention  was  to  have  the  animals  daily  in  a  state 
of  intoxication,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  decide  just  when  this  stage 
is  reached,  as  the  only  certain  indication  of  it  is  inco-ordination 
of  muscular  movement.  It  frequently  occurred  that  when  alco- 
hol was  given  to  this  stage,  the  direct  effect  of  the  drug  was 
such  as  gravely  to  imperil  the  life  of  the  animal,  and  in  a 
certain  number  of  instances  the  animals  did  not  rally  from  even 
so  few  as  one  or  two  such  administrations.  If  the  dose  were 
diminished,  then  one  could  often  not  be  sure  that  the  rabbit  was 
intoxicated. 

On  the  other  hand,  one  encounters  occasionally  an  individual 


382  THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

on  which  alcoholism  to  intoxication  has  apparently  no  effect 
upon  the  general  health,  and  may  be  prolonged  over  relatively 
long  periods.  One  of  the  animals,  for  instance,  received  daily 
doses  of  alcohol  ranging  from  5  to  15  cubic  centimetres  for  one 
hundred  and  fourteen  days.  Its  weight  at  the  beginning  was 
1330  grams  and  at  the  end  13.50  grams,  while  during  the  in- 
terval its  weight  had  been  as  high  as  1520  grams  and  as  low  as 
1090  grams.  It  died  under  the  administration  of  15  grams  daily 
with  macroscopic  lesions  of  only  the  gastric  mucous  membrane. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  the  studies  upon  the  effects  of  smaller, 
non-intoxicating  doses  of  alcohol  will  demonstrate  the  possibility 
of  continuing  the  administration  of  the  drug  over  practically 
an  indefinite  period,  quite  to  the  stage  of  chronic  alcoholism, 
in  a  fair  proportion  of  the  animals  treated  in  this  way. 

The  individual  susceptibility  of  different  animals  to  the  phy- 
siological action  of  alcohol  differed  in  such  a  way  as  to  require 
at  the  beginning  a  special  dose  for  each  individual.  It  is  im- 
possible to  maintain  throughout  a  constant  relation  between 
body  weight  and  dose  necessary  to  produce  the  desired  effects. 
For  instance,  if  5  cubic  centimetres  of  alcohol  produce  intoxi- 
cation in  a  rabbit  of  1000  grams  weight,  it  cannot  be  said  that 
10  cubic  centimetres  will  necessarily  have  the  like  effect  in  the 
next  rabbit  of  2000  grams  weight.  The  dose  for  the  individ- 
ual can  be  determined  only  by  experiment. 

It  frequently  occurred  tliat.  when  the  appropriate  dose  had 
been  determined,  its  continuous  administration  over  several  or 
more  days  resulted  in  very  rapid  and  marked  loss  in  body  weight, 
an  indication  of  the  greatest  importance,  meaning  that  if  the 
alcohol  be  continued  the  animal  is  practically  certain  to  die. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  becomes  necessary  either  to  dimin- 
ish the  dose  or  cease  the  administration  entirely  for  a  time,  until 
the  lost  weight  is  partially  or  completely  recovered.  During 
the  interval  of  rest,  as  it  may  be  called,  the  animal  is,  of  course, 
not  daily  intoxicated,  and  while  the  records  of  these  experi- 
ments refer  to  animals  "  daily  under  the  influence  of  alcohol  to 
the  stage  of  intoxication,"  it  will  be  boi-ne  in  mind  that  with 
many  of  these  animals  such  periods  of  rest,  vai-ying  in  dura- 
tion, were  more  or  less  frequently  necessary. 

As  it  was  imjjossible  to  induce  the  rabbits  to  take  alcohol 
voluntarily,  either  with  the  food  or  otherwise,  it  became  ueces- 


INFLUENCE   OF   ALCOHOLISM   ON    KABBITS.  383 

saiy  to  aclmiuister  it  through  a  soft  rubber  catheter  passed  down 
the  esojAagus  into  the  stomach,  and  though  this  was  done  as 
gently  as  possible,  the  irritation  resulting  from  the  re})eated 
passage  of  the  catheter,  together  with  the  dejiressing  influence 
of  the  drug,  was  accompanied  in  a  number  of  instances  by  in- 
tercurrent infections  which,  from  their  character  and  location, 
can  reasonably  be  traced  to  insignificant  wounds  of  the  mucous 
surface  of  the  esophagus  made  when  the  alcohol  was  admin- 
istered. 

In  only  two  instances  was  deatli  positively  the  result  of  inspi- 
ration of  alcohol  into  the  air  passages  at  the  time  of  ojieration. 
When  such  an  accident  occurs  death  is  practically  instantaneous. 

The  most  common  macroscopic  effect  of  the  direct  action  of 
the  alcohol  was  erosion  and  inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  stomach,  a  condition  that  was  unfortunatel}'  present 
in  quite  a  number  of  animals,  and  which  complicated  matters 
in  such  a  way  as  to  vitiate  considerably  the  results  of  the  ex- 
periments. 

When  the  necessary  dose  of  alcohol  was  determined,  it  was 
always  given  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  distilled  water. 

The  dose  necessary  to  positively  produce  intoxication  ranged 
from  5  cubic  centimetres  to  15  cubic  centimetres  of  pure  ethyl 
alcohol,  though  the  usual  dose  in  rabbits  of  from  1500  to 
1800  grams  weight  was  from  7.5  cubic  centimetres  to  10  cubic 
centimetres,  doses  which,  if  taken  by  a  man  of  150  pounds 
weight,  would  be  roughly  equivalent  to  from  two  thirds  to  five 
sixths  of  a  pint  of  absolute  alcohol  Notwithstanding  this 
apparently  very  large  amount,  animals  have  repeatedly  been  en- 
countered on  which  frou)  10  to  12,  and  even  15  cubic  centi- 
metres had  no  visible  influence,  though  the  continuance  of  these 
doses  in  many  instances  was  followed  by  death  associated  with 
grave  lesions  of  the  gastric  mucous  membrane. 

W^hile  rabbits  offer  conditions  in  a  way  favorable  to  experi- 
ments of  this  character,  they  are  so  liable  to  intercurrent  bac- 
terial and  protozoal  infections  as  to  lead  to  many  irregularities 
when  large  numbers  of  them  are  used.  In  the  course  of  this 
work  a  number  of  experiments  were  seriously  vitiated  by  reason 
of  such  complications.  The  general  plan  followed  in  these  ex- 
periments was  to  employ  groups  of  equal  numbers  of  animals. 
All  were  inoculated  in  the  same  way,  then  to  one  group  alcohol 


384  THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

was  given,  while  to  the  other  no  alcohol  was  administered.  They 
were  all  then  kejjt  under  the  same  conditions  of  food,  etc.  Each 
animal  was  weighed  in  the  morning  before  it  was  fed.  In  one 
or  two  cases  the  number  of  "  controls  "  was  fewer  than  that  of 
the  alcohol  group.  Control  animals  receiving  only  alcohol  were 
not  introduced  into  each  experiment,  as  the  necessary  data  on 
this  ])oint  could  always  be  had  by  reference  to  the  records  of 
preceding  experiments  in  which  the  different  effects  of  the  drug 
on  different  animals  was  recoi'ded. 

Without  going  further  into  the  particulars,  it  will  suffice  to 
briefly  summarize  the  results  of  each  experiment  as  follows  :  — 

EXPERIMENT   I. 

Summary  of  the  results  of  the  intravenous  inoculation  of 
rabbits  receiving  daily  doses  of  alcohol  to  the  stage  of  intoxica- 
tion, with  bouillon  cultures  of  streptococcus  pyogenes  obtained 
from  a  phlegmonous  inflammation  in  man  :  — 

Of  eleven  rabbits  inoculated  intravenously  with  varying 
amounts  of  streptococcus  pyogenes,  six  received  daily  doses  of 
alcohol  for  different  lengths  of  time.  The  remaining  five  of 
this  group  received  no  alcohol.  In  addition,  two  rabbits  re- 
ceived only  daih'  doses  of  alcohol.  Of  the  six  inoculated  an- 
imals that  received  alcohol,  all  died  after  marked  loss  of  weight, 
and  all  exhibited  lesions  referable  to  the  inoculation.  One  re- 
vealed a  condition  of  the  liver  probably  the  result  of  the  action 
of  the  alcohol. 

Of  the  five  inoculated  animals  to  which  no  alcohol  was  given, 
one  died,  one  was  killed,  and  three  recovered. 

The  one  that  died  presented  no  lesions  referable  to  the  inocu- 
lation. Cultures  revealed  the  presence  of  streptococci  in  the 
liver  mixed  with  another  organism,  while  the  other  internal 
organs  were  sterile. 

The  animal  that  was  killed  presented  no  lesions  of  im]ior- 
tance,  and  its  blood  and  internal  organs  were  found  by  culture 
test  to  be  sterile. 

Each  of  the  three  remaining  animals  suffered  from  temporary 
erysipelas  of  the  ear  at  the  site  of  needle  puncture.  They  re- 
covered from  this,  and  at  the  end  of  120  days  were  apparently 
in  good  condition,  one  having  gained  330  grams,  the  other  110 
grams,  and  the  other  270  grams  in  weight. 


INFLUENCE   OF   ALCOHOLISM   ON    RABBITS.  385 

Of  the  two  aiiimals  that  were  not  inoculated,  but  whicli  re- 
ceived alcohol  dailj%  one  died  after  114  days  with  a  condition 
of  the  gastric  mucous  membrane  referable  to  the  alcohol,  the 
other  after  3-4  days  with  no  macrosco2)ic  lesions  to  account  for 
death. 

EXPERIMENT    II. 

Summary  of  the  results  of  intravenous  inoculation  of  rabbits, 
receiving  intoxicating  doses  of  alcohol  daily,  with  suspensions  of 
streptococcus  pyogenes  :  — 

The  eighteen  animals  employed  in  this  experiment  were  di- 
vided into  four  groups,  and  treated  as  follows  :  — 

Four  received  intoxicating  doses  of  ethyl  alcohol  for  five  days 
and  were  then  inoculated  intravenously  with  0.5  cubic  centi- 
metre of  a  suspension  of  streptococcus  pyogenes. 

Five  received  intoxicating  doses  of  methyl  alcohol  for  five 
days  and  were  then  similarly  inoculated. 

The  alcohol  was  continued  in  both  groups  after  inoculation 
until  death. 

Five  received,  in  addition  to  the  inoculation,  daily  doses  of 
distilled  water,  injected  into  the  stomach  in  the  same  manner  as 
was  the  alcohol  in  the  other  animals,  for  fifteen  days.  After 
this,  alcohol  was  given  to  two  of  them,  —  to  one  for  two  days,  to 
the  other  for  six  daj-s,  —  while  the  remaining  thi-ee  got  nothing 
from  the  fifteenth  day. 

Four  were  simply  inoculated.  One  of  this  group  received  a 
single  dose  of  alcohol. 

The  nine  latter  animals  served  as  controls. 

Results.  —  Of  nine  inoculated  animals  to  which  alcohol  was 
given,  seven  died  with  suppurative  lesions. 

Of  nine  inoculated  animals  that  received  no  alcohol  until 
after  the  fifteenth  day,  when  alcohol  was  given  to  two,  five  died, 
three  were  killed,  and  one  was  observed  for  fifty-two  days.  In 
only  three  of  the  nine  were  suppurative  lesions  detected  at 
autopsy. 

Of  the  seven  alcohol  animals  that  died,  five  presented  lesions 
at  autopsy  that  could  be  attributed  to  the  action  of  alcohol. 

EXPERIMENT    III. 

Summary  of  the  results  of  intravenous  inoculation  of  rabbits 
receiving  alcohol  daily  to  the  stage  of  intoxication,  with  sus- 
I^ensions  of  bacillus  coli  communis  from  human  feces  :  — 


386  illE    LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

Of  five  rabbits,  each  of  which  was  inoculated  with  one  cubic 
centimetre  of  a  suspension  in  bouillon  of  bacillus  coli  communis, 
and  all  of  which  had  been  receiving  alcohol  to  the  stage  of  in- 
toxication daily  for  five  days,  four  died  in  from  cigliteen  to 
twenty  hours  and  one  in  eighteen  days  after  inoculation. 

None  presented  lesions  referable  to  the  inoculation.  One 
revealed  a  condition  of  tJie  gastric  mucous  membrane  that  evi- 
dently resulted  from  the  direct  action  of  the  alcohol.  Bacillus 
coli  communis  was  obtained  in  cultures  from  the  internal  organs 
of  all. 

Five  rabbits,  each  of  which  had  been  receiving  alcohol  in 
doses  ranging  from  2.5  to  15  cubic  centimetres  daily  for  thirty- 
one  days,  were  inoculated  intravenously  with  the  same  material 
in  the  same  amount  that  was  emploj'ed  in  the  preceding  group. 

One  died  within  twenty-four  hours  after  the  inoculation. 

Four  died  in  from  forty-three  to  fifty-five  days  after  the  in- 
oculation. 

Three  presented  at  autopsy  lesions  referable  to  the  inocula- 
tion, namely,  the  condition  of  the  liver,  gall  bladder,  and  bile 
described  by  Blachstein.^ 

Two  presented  no  lesions  attributable  to  the  inoculation. 

Two  showed  a  condition  of  the  liver  that  may  possibly  have 
resulted  from  the  prolonged  action  of  the  alcohol,  while  in  the 
remaining  three  no  results  of  the  alcohol  were  evident. 

Two  control  animals  that  were  inoculated  in  the  same  man- 
ner with  the  same  material,  but  which  received  no  alcohol,  were 
alive  on  the  seventy-ninth  day  after  inoculation.  By  the  sixtieth 
day  one  had  gained  230  grams  in  weight,  while  the  other,  though 
apparently  well,  had  lost  200  grams  in  weight. 

EXPERIMENT    IV. 

Summary  of  the  results  of  inoculation  of  alcoholized  animals 
with  suspensions  of  bacillus  coli  comnnmis  :  — 

Three  animals  received  intravenous  inoculation  of  0.5  cubic 
centimetre  of  a  suspension  of  bacillus  coli.  Immediately  after- 
wai-d  the  administration  of  alcohol  was  begun.  One  died  during 
the  night,  and  one  on  the  day  following  the  inoculation.     Bacil- 

'  Blachsteiii,  "  Iiitraveiitms  Inoculation  of  Rabbits  with  the  BaciUns  Coli 
Communis  and  the  Bacillus  Typhi  Abdominalis,"  Bulletin  of  the  Johns  Hop- 
kins Hospital,  vol.  ii.  No.  14,  July,  1891. 


INFLUENCE  OF  ALCOHOLISM  ON   RABBITS.  387 

lus  coli  was  found  by  cultures  in  the  internal  organs  of  both. 
The  third  died  eight  days  after  inoculation  with  no  character- 
istic lesions  and  no  colon  bacilli  in  the  internal  organs.  The 
mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  was  eroded,  and  there  was  a 
fibrino-purulent  pericarditis  and  pleuritis,  evidently  the  result 
of  an  intercurrent  infection,  probably  induced  by  the  repeated 
passage  of  the  catheter  along  the  esophagus. 

Three  other  rabbits  that  had  been  getting  alcohol  for  four 
days  were  inoculated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  preceding.  Two 
died  on  the  ninth  day  and  one  on  the  eighteenth  day  following 
inoculation. 

In  one,  dead  on  the  ninth  day,  were  the  characteristic  lesions 
described  by  Blachstein.  There  was  also  present  a  condition  of 
the  stomach  that  was  manifestly  the  result  of  the  action  of  the 
alcohol. 

Of  the  remaining  two,  in  one  death  ensued  from  an  intercur- 
rent infection,  while  in  the  other  death  was  the  result  of  an 
intestinal  intussusception.  This  latter  animal  presented  erosion 
of  the  gastric  mucous  membrane  that  was  evidently  the  result  of 
the  action  of  the  alcohol. 

In  both  animals  that  died  on  the  ninth  day  colon  bacilli  were 
present  in  cultures  from  the  internal  organs,  while  in  the  one 
dead  on  the  eighteenth  day  the  blood  and  internal  organs  were 
sterile. 

Three  control  animals  were  alive  and  apparently  well  on  the 
forty-sixth  day.  One  had  gained  50  grams,  the  other  280  grams, 
while  the  third  had  lost  120  grams  in  weight. 

In  short,  of  six  alcoholized  rabbits  inoculated  with  colon  bacilli, 
all  died.  One  presented  characteristic  lesions  at  autopsy.  Of 
three  non-alcoholized,  control  animals,  none  died. 

EXPERIMENT   V. 

Results  of  intravenous  inoculation  of  rabbits  receiving  alco- 
hol, with  cultures  of  staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  :  — 

In  this  experiment  the  first  inoculation  was  without  effect,  and 
the  animals  were  inoculated  a  second  time  after  an  interval  of 
seven  days.  Four  animals  were  employed,  viz.,  two  alcohol- 
ized and  two  controls.  The  alcoholized  animals  died  in  four- 
teen and  two  days,  respectively,  after  the  inoculation.  Both 
presented    lesions   referable   to  the    inoculation,  and    neither 


388  THE  LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

showed  conditions  due  to  the  direct  action  of  the  alcohol.  One 
control  animal  died  in  four  days  after  the  first  inoculation,  while 
the  second  died  in  six  days  after  the  second  inoculation.  To 
this  latter  animal  alcohol  was  administered  from  the  time  of  the 
second  inoculation.  Both  presented  lesions  referable  to  the  in- 
oculation, and  the  one  that  got  alcohol  jiresented  also  conditions 
due  to  the  direct  action  of  the  alcohol. 

This  expei'iment  does  not  demonstrate  any  material  differ- 
ence between  the  alcoholized  and  the  non-alcoholized  animals  as 
regards  their  susceptibility  to  this  form  of  infection. 

EXPERIMENT   VI. 

Subcutaneous  inoculation  of  alcoholized  animals  with  cultures 
of  staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  :  — 

There  were  four  animals  in  this  group,  two  alcoholized  and 
two  controls.  In  all  except  one,  an  alcoholized  rabbit,  the  sub- 
cutaneous inoculation  was  without  effect  up  to  the  seventh  day. 
On  the  seventh  day  the  three  remaining  animals  were  inoculated 
again,  but  this  time  intravenously. 

Results.  —  One  alcoholized  animal  died  in  three  days  after 
the  subcutaneous  inoculation.  Death  was  due  to  pseudo-tuber- 
culosis of  the  lungs.  There  was  only  a  trifling  area  of  suppura- 
tion at  the  seat  of  inoculation.  The  other  alcoholized  rabbit 
died  four  days  after  the  intravenous  inoculation  and  presented 
the  usual  condition  of  widespread  miliary  abscess  formation. 
Both  control  animals  died  after  the  intravenous  inoculation  — 
the  one  in  seven  days,  the  other  in  twenty-four  hours.  The 
former  presented  lesions  characteristic  of  the  inoculation,  while 
the  latter  presented  no  macroscopic  lesions  at  all  at  autopsy. 
The  former  control  animal  had  been  given  alcohol  since  the 
date  of  its  second  intravenous  inoculation.  At  autojisy  it  pre- 
sented lesions  referable  to  the  direct  action  of  the  alcohol. 

EXPERIMENT   VII. 

Intraperitoneal  inoculation  of  alcoholized  animals  with  cul- 
tures of  staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  :  — 

Four  animals  were  employed  ;  two  received  alcohol  and  two 
served  as  controls. 

The  animals  that  exhibited  no  effects  of  the  intraperitoneal 
inoculation  at  the  end  of  a  week  were  reinoculated  with  the 
same  material,  but  this  time  the  inoculation  was  intravenous. 


INFLUENCE  OF  ALCOHOLISM  ON  RABBITS.  389 

One  alcoholized  animal  died  the  day  following  the  intraperi- 
toneal inoculation,  the  other  two  days  after  the  intravenous 
inoculation. 

In  neither  were  lesions  detected  that  could  account  for 
death,  or  be  positively  referred  to  either  the  inoculation  or  the 
alcohol. 

Both  control  animals  recovered  from  the  intraperitoneal  in- 
oculation, and  at  the  end  of  a  week  were  inoculated  intrave- 
nously. 

One  died  two  days  after  this  latter  inoculation  and  presented 
neither  mycotic  nor  alcoholic  lesions,  death  being  due  to  rup- 
ture of  the  gravid  uterus,  while  the  other  died  nine  days  after 
intravenous  inoculation  with  abscesses  in  myocardium  and 
kidneys. 

EXPERIMENT   VIII. 

Intravenous  inoculation  of  alcoholized  rabbits  with  bouillon 
cultures  of  staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus:  — 

Of  the  six  inoculated  animals  to  which  alcohol  was  given, 
three  died  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours  and  three  in  forty- 
eight  to  seventy-two  hours  after  inoculation.  In  three,  lesions 
were  present  that  could  jjositively  be  referred  to  the  inoculation, 
and  in  one  the  condition  was  doubtful.  In  two  no  such  lesions 
could  be  found. 

In  five  of  the  six  animals  a  condition  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  stomach  was  found  that  was  evidently  the  result 
of  the  direct  action  of  the  alcohol. 

Of  the  six  inoculated  animals  that  did  not  get  alcohol,  three 
died  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours,  two  after  five  and  twelve 
days,  respectively,  while  the  remaining  animal  was  apparently 
well  at  the  end  of  forty-three  days. 

Three  of  these  animals  presented  lesions  that  resulted  from 
the  inoculation,  in  one  the  lesion  was  doubtful,  in  one  no  lesions 
were  detected,  and  the  sixth  is  still  alive. 

This  experiment  demonstrates  a  slight,  though  not  very  im- 
portant or  striking,  difference  between  the  course  of  infection 
in  the  two  groups. 

EXPERIMENT    IX. 

Subcutaneous  inoculation  of  alcoholized  rabbits  with  cultures 
of  staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus :  — 


390  THE  LIQUOR   PROBLEM. 

Of  the  six  inoculated  animals  to  which  alcohol  was  given,  one 
died  during  the  night  following  the  inoculation  ;  the  remaining 
five  died  in  from  five  to  fifteen  days  later. 

Two  of  these  animals  presented  uo  lesions  referable  to  the 
inoculation,  one  presented  an  extensive  local  lesion,  and  three 
presented  a  lesion  of  the  pleurae  and  pericardium  of  doubtful 
significance.  This  condition  was  identical  in  the  three  animals 
and  consisted  of  a  fibrino-purulent  inflammation  of  practically 
all  the  serous  surfaces  within  the  thoracic  cavity.  Cultures  from 
this  lesion  revealed  the  jjresence  of  a  staphylococcus  that  grew 
feebly,  producing  but  a  very  faint,  barely  perceptible,  cream 
color,  and  in  general  gave  the  impression  that  it  might  be  an 
attenuated  or  enfeebled  culture  of  staijhylococcus  aureus.  It 
was  not  studied  in  detail. 

The  animals  in  wliich  this  lesion  was  found  died  in  five, 
fifteen,  and  fifteen  days,  respectively. 

The  three  control  animals  used  in  this  experiment  manifested 
no  ill  effects  of  the  treatment.  They  were  alive  and  well  at  the 
end  of  forty-six  days  after  inoculation. 

In  none  of  the  six  animals  that  received  alcohol  was  there  any 
macroscopic  evidence  of  the  action  of  the  alcohol  on  the  tissues. 

EXPERIMENT    X. 

Intravenous  inoculation  of  alcoholized  rabbits  with  staphy- 
lococcus pyogenes  aureus  attenuated  (?)  by  exposure  to  chloro- 
form :  — 

Four  animals  were  used  in  this  experiment. 

Of  the  two  inoculated  animals  to  which  alcohol  was  given, 
one  died  on  the  fifth,  the  other  on  the  second  day  following  the 
inoculation.  One  presented  a  lesion  of  the  kidney  positively 
referable  to  the  inoculation,  the  other  a  condition  of  the  perito- 
neum that  probably,  though  not  certainly,  resulted  from  the 
treatment  to  which  the  animal  had  been  subjected. 

Both  of  these  animals  presented  extensive  erosions  of  the 
gastric  mucous  membrane  that  was  manifestly  the  result  of  the 
direct  action  of  the  alcohol. 

Neither  of  the  two  control  animals  evinced  any  ill  effects  from 
the  inoculation  ;  both  gained  in  weight,  and  at  the  end  of  twenty- 
eight  days  were  eliminated  from  the  experiment  as  not  likely  to 
manifest  evidence  of  infection. 


INFLUENCE  OF  ALCOHOLISM  ON  RABBITS.  391 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The  deductions  that  may  be  drawn  from  the  results  of  these 
experiments  are  as  follows :  — 

That  the  normal  vital  resistance  of  rabbits  to  infection  by- 
streptococcus  pyogenes  (erysipelatos)  is  markedly  diminished 
through  the  influence  of  alcohol  when  given  daily  to  the  stage 
of  acute  intoxication.  That  a  similar,  though  by  no  means  so 
conspicuous,  diminution  of  resistance  to  infection  and  intoxi- 
cation by  the  bacillus  coli  communis  also  occurs  in  rabbits  sub- 
jected to  the  same  influences. 

And  that,  while  in  alcoholized  rabbits  inoculated  in  various 
ways  with  stajjhylococcus  pyogenes  aureus,  individual  instances 
of  lowered  resistance  are  observed,  still  it  is  impossible  to  say 
from  these  experiments  that  in  general  a  marked  difference  is 
noticed  between  alcoholized  and  non-alcoholized  animals  as  re- 
gards infection  by  this  particular  organism. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  results  of  inoculation  of 
alcoholized  rabbits  with  the  erysipelas  coccus  correspond  in  a 
way  with  clinical  observations  on  human  beings  addicted  to  the 
excessive  use  of  alcohol  when  infected  by  this  organism. 

In  the  course  of  the  work  an  effort  was  made  to  determine  if, 
through  the  oxidation  of  alcohol  in  the  tissues  to  acids  of  the 
corresponding  chemical  group,  the  increase  of  susceptibility 
could  be  referred  to  a  diminution  in  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood 
as  a  result  of  the  presence  of  such  acids.  The  number  of  ex- 
periments made  on  this  point  was  too  small  to  justify  dogmatic 
statements,  but  from  what  was  gathered  there  is  but  little  evi- 
dence in  support  of  this  view. 

Throughout  these  experiments,  with  few  exceptions,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  alcoholized  animals  not  only  showed  the  effects 
of  the  inoculations  earlier  than  did  the  non-alcoholized  rabbits, 
but  in  the  case  of  the  streptococcus  inoculations  the  lesions 
produced  (formation  of  miliary  abscesses)  were  much  more  pro- 
nounced than  are  those  that  usually  follow  inoculation  with  this 
organism. 

With  regard  to  the  predisposing  influence  of  the  alcohol,  one 
is  constrained  to  believe  that  it  is  in  most  cases  the  result  of 
structural  alterations  consequent  upon  its  direct  action  on  the 
tissues,  though  in  a  number  of  the  animals  no  such  alteration 


392  THE   LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

could  be  made  out  by  macroscopic  examination.  It  is  likely, 
however,  in  the  light  of  the  work  of  Berkley  and  of  Friedenwald, 
done  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Welch,  in  the  Pathologi- 
cal Laboratory  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  that  a  closer 
histological  study  of  the  tissues  of  these  animals  would  have 
revealed  in  all  of  them  structural  changes  of  such  a  nature  as 
to  indicate  disturbances  of  important  vital  functions  of  sufficient 
gravity  fvdly  to  account  for  the  loss  of  normal  resistance. 

The  conspicuous  influence  of  the  alcohol  on  the  gastric  mu- 
cous membrane  in  many  of  these  animals,  with  the  consequent 
disturbance  of  nutrition,  is  undoubtedly  the  explanation  of  the 
marked  loss  in  body  weight  that  was  observed  in  many  of  the 
animals  employed  in  these  experiments.  In  this  light  the  sus- 
ceptibility induced  by  alcohol  to  excess  is  somewhat  analogous 
to  that  induced  by  starvation,  where  we  see  the  resistance  of 
animals  to  particular  forms  of  infection  very  markedly  dimin- 
ished.^ 

Memorandum  of  Unfinished  Investigation  hearing  upon  the  Influ- 
ence of  Chronic  Alcoholism  upon  the  Vital  Resistance  of  Monkeys 
to  Infection. 

This  investigation  was  designed  to  supplement  that  i^ublished 
in  vol.  i.  of  the  "  Journal  of  Experimental  Medicine,"  under 
the  title,  "  The  Influence  of  Acute  Alcoholism  upon  the  Vital 
Resistance  of  Rabbits  to  Infection." 

The  work  was  begun  May  29,  1896,  and  was  discontinued 
October  3,  1898.  During  the  interval  between  these  dates 
twenty  animals,  monkeys,  were  used.  Of  this  number  only  eight 
were  living  at  the  time  the  research  was  abandoned.  Of  the 
twelve  monkeys  that  died,  three  were  purposely  killed  and  nine 
died  of  a  condition  the  nature  of  which  could  not  be  determined, 
even  though  careful  examinations  by  pathological,  and  in  most 
instances  bacteriological,  methods  also  were  made.  In  none  of 
the  animals  that  died  spontaneously  was  there  evidence  of  tuber- 
culosis or  of  disease  of  the  digestive  tract  or  kidneys.  In  this 
experiment  whiskey,  instead  of  pure  alcohol,  was  administered. 

'  Since  the  publication  of  this  paper  the  results  have  received  confinna^ 
tion  at  the  hands  of  Laitinen  :  Acta  Societatis  Scientiarum  Fennicce,  1900, 
tome  xxix.  No.  7  ;  also  Zeit.  fiir  Hyg-  u.  hfeklionskrankleiten,  1900,  Bd. 
xsxiv,  S.  206,  as  stated  in  the  paper  b}-  Dr.  Welch,  p.  000^ 


INFLUENCE   OF  ALCOHOLISM   ON  RABBITS.  393 

Of  the  eight  animals  that  survived  the  experiment,  one,  a 
small  rhesus  monkey,  had  been  receiving  whiskey  in  varying 
amounts,  and  more  or  less  interruptedly,  since  May  29,  1896, 
while  the  remaining  seven  animals,  the  so-called  "  pig-tail " 
macaques,  had  been  getting  whiskey  under  similar  circum- 
stances since  June  17,  1896. 

It  is  impossible  to  state  accurately  the  amount  of  whiskey 
taken  daily  by  any  of  these  animals,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  it  was  given  to  them  in  measured  quantities.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  in  order  to  get  them  to  take  it  at  all  it  was 
necessary  to  devise  a  more  or  less  attractive  mixture.  After' 
several  trials  a  mixture  of  milk,  whiskey,  and  sugar  was  found 
to  be  most  acceptable  to  them,  but  even  this  was  not  always 
totally  consumed  ;  some  of  it  was  at  times  refused,  again  some 
was  spilled  by  the  animals  in  their  attempts  to  drink,  while 
again  there  were  days  when  they  refused  the  mixture  entirely. 

It  can  be  stated,  however,  that  after  the  preliminary  stages 
of  the  experiment,  when  the  whiskey  was  begun  in  very  small 
amounts  and  gradually  increased,  it  was  possible  for  the  small 
rhesus  and  the  larger  macaque  monkeys  to  take  100  and  150  c.  c. 
respectively  at  a  dose  without  evincing  any  visible  signs  of  acute 
alcoholism.  Doses  much  in  excess  of  this  (150  and  200  c.  c. 
respectively)  were  almost  certain  to  cause  acute  intoxication. 

It  was  also  impossible  to  keep  the  animals  steadily  on  a  fixed 
dose.  At  times  they  exhibited  such  disinclination  to  the  whis- 
key that  it  was  often  necessary  to  diminish  the  dose  very  much 
and  then  gradually  increase  it  again.  There  were  also  a  num- 
ber of  instances  when  it  seemed  advisable  to  discontinue  the 
whiskey  entirely  for  a  time. 

It  is  plain  from  this  that  only  approximations  as  to  the 
amount  of  whiskey  taken  by  the  animals  can  be  made. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  animals  which  died  did  so 
very  early  in  the  experiment,  so  that  we  are  not  inclined  to  at- 
tribute their  death  to  the  relatively  small  amount  of  alcohol  that 
they  were  receiving  at  the  time.  The  health  of  those  that  sur- 
vived was  uniformly  good ;  indeed,  the  appetite  in  all  cases 
seemed  to  be  increased. 

On  May  27, 1898,  after  a  period  of  almost  two  years  on  whis- 
key, it  was  decided  to  make  an  attempt  to  determine  if  the  vital 
resistance  of  the  monkeys  that  had  been  getting  the  whiskey 


394  THE   LIQUOR  PROBLEM. 

differed  in  any  particular  from  that  of  monkeys  tLat  liad  not 
been,  under  similar  conditions. 

To  this  end  the  entire  growth  from  five  well-develoj)ed  cul- 
tures of  bacillus  tuberculosis  was  carefully  mixed  with  250  c.  c. 
of  fresh  milk,  the  alcohol  was  discontinued,  and  to  each  animal 
20  cubic  centimetres  of  the  milk  thus  infected  was  given.  In 
all  cases  it  was  entii-ely  consumed. 

The  animals  were  then  kept  under  careful  observation  until 
October  3,  1898,  a  period  of  practically  four  months.  Two 
days  after  the  ingestion  of  this  mixture  of  milk  and  tubercle 
bacilli  one  of  the  original  eight  monkeys  died.  It  had  been 
suffering  from  a  catarrhal  condition  and  a  cough  for  a  week  or 
ten  days  before  the  test  was  made.  At  autopsy  nothing  that 
could  be  referable  to  the  infected  milk  was  discovered. 

The  remaining  seven  animals  of  the  original  lot,  as  well  as 
three  newly  purchased  that  served  as  controls,  did  not  at  any 
time  during  the  four  months  show  the  slightest  signs  of  tuber- 
culosis or  any  other  impairment  of  health. 

Two  guinea  pigs  that  had  received  subcutaneous  inoculation 
with  the  same  cultures  of  bacillus  tuberculosis,  in  oi-der  to  test 
its  virulence,  died  of  tuberculosis,  but  only  in  a  very  mild  and 
limited  form,  so  that  the  failure  to  infect  the  monkeys  may  have 
been  due  to  the  use  of  cultures  that  were  more  or  less  attenu- 
ated, though  this  was  not  known  at  the  time  they  were  used. 

When  it  was  ultimately  decided  to  abandon  the  experiment, 
two  of  the  monkeys  that  had  been  receiving  whiskey  for  the 
longest  time  and  in  the  largest  doses  were  killed,  and  careful 
autopsies  made. 

These  revealed  the  following  conditions  :  — 
(1)  Large  macaque  monkey  — 

On  incision  through  the  abdominal  walls  there  appeared  a 
conspicuous  amount  of  yellow  fat.  There  was  an  unusual 
deposit  of  yellow  fat  over  the  omentum  and  about  the  kidneys. 
The  liver  was  normal  in  size,  color,  and  consistence.  The 
kidneys  were  imbedded  in  fat,  were  normal  in  color  and  size, 
smooth  on  the  surface  and  on  section  j)resented  no  changes 
recognizable  by  the  naked  eye  ;  the  capsules  of  both  kidneys 
were  in  spots  very  slightly  adherent  to  the  underlying  cortex. 
There  was  a  marked  deposit  of  fat  upon  the  pericardium. 
The  heart  was  normal. 


INFLUENCE  OF  ALCOHOLISM  ON    RABBITS.  395 

Eight  lung  was  slightly  adherent  to  the  thoracic  wall  by 
several  small,  old  adhesions. 

There  was  no  evidence  of  recent  or  remote  tuberculosis. 

The  lymphatics  showed  no  evidence  of  disease. 

The  stomach  and  intestines  were  normal. 

The  spleen  was  normal. 

Microscopic  examination  of  liver  and  kidneys  did  not  reveal 
any  increase  of  connective  tissue. 
(2)  Small  rhesus  monkey  — 

There  was  slight  excess  of  moisture  in  the  peritoneal 
cavity. 

Subcutaneous  and  deeper  lymphatics  a  little  large,  but  not 
apparently  diseased. 

Peritoneum,  liver,  kidneys,  spleen,  heart,  and  lungs  natural 
in  all  respects,  in  so  far  as  macroscopic  examination  was  con- 
cerned. 

The  animal  was  well  nourished,  but  did  not  present  the 
same  deposit  of  fat  as  was  observed  in  the  preceding  animal. 

Microscopic  examination  of  liver  and  kidneys  did  not  re- 
veal any  increase  of  interstitial  connective  tissues. 

Reasons  for  abandoning  the  investigation  :  — 

(1)  From  the  conditions  found  in  the  autopsies  just  cited,  as 
well  as  those  revealed  at  autopsies  upon  the  other  animals, 
both  those  receiving  whiskey  and  those  not  receiving  it,  that 
died  during  the  time  of  the  investigation,  there  was  no  evi- 
dence that  the  nutrition  of  the  monkeys  was  in  any  way  im- 
paired, and  the  outlook  for  positive  and  useful  results  did  not 
appear  as  immediately  promising. 

(2)  In  view  of  the  fact  that  not  one  of  the  group  of  animals  to 
which  large  quantities  of  tubercle  bacilli  had  been  fed,  even 
though  these  may  have  been  attenuated  to  some  extent,  showed 
the  least  clinical  evidence  of  tuberculosis  or  of  other  im- 
pairment of  health,  the  outlook  also  appeared  as  unpromis- 
ing. 

(3)  Since  the  animals  could  only  be  kept  in  good  health  under 
proper  conditions  of  warmth  and  dryness,  and  as  the  labora- 
tory building  was  the  only  place  in  which  these  conditions 
were  obtainable,  it  was  soon  discovered  that  the  maintenance 
of  so  many  monkeys  in  a  room  in  the  laboratory  became  an 
intolerable  nuisance. 


396  THE   LIQUOR   PROBLEM, 

(4)  The  expensive  nature  of  the  work,  requiring  comparatively 
large  sums  of  money  for  the  purchase  and  maintenance  of 
animals  and  for  whiskey,  exhausted  the  appropriation  that 
was  available  for  these  studies. 


Date  Due 

' 

] 

f) 

QP915   — ^   *  '         ^^ 
v.l 

Billings 

Physiological  aspects  of  the 


